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Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life, teachings, and actions of Jesus, the Christ, as recounted in the New Testament.
With an estimated 2.1 billion adherentsTemplate:Fn, Christianity is the world's largest religion. Its origins are intertwined with Judaism, with which it shares much sacred text and early history; specifically, it shares the Hebrew Bible, known in the Christian context as the Old Testament (see Judeo-Christian).Template:Fn Christianity is considered an Abrahamic religion, along with Judaism and Islam.
In the Christian scriptures, the name "Christian" and so "Christianity" is first attested in Acts 11:26: "For a whole year they met with the church and taught a great many people. And in Antioch Jesus' disciples were first called Christians" (Gr. χριστιανους, from Christ Gr. Χριστός, which means "the anointed").
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[سمادول] تاريخ او بنسټ
Template:POV-section
- Main article: History of Christianity
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Christianity began within the Jewish religion among the followers of Jesus of Nazareth. Under the leadership of the Apostles Peter and Paul, it opened up early to Gentiles, gradually distinguishing itself from and parting ways with Rabbinical Judaism. Some Jewish Christians rejected this approach and developed into various sects of their own. A church hierarchy seems to have developed, at least by the time of the writing of the Pastoral Epistles, and was certainly formalized by the 3rd century.
Christianity spread across the Mediterranean Basin, enduring persecution by Roman Emperors. As Christianity expanded beyond Palestine, it also came into contact with Greek philosophy; Hellenistic ideas would become a significant influence on Christian thought. Early Christian theologians such as Origen worked to create a synthesis between Greek philosophy, especially Platonism, and Christianity, developing a distinctly Christian theology. Christianity also had to deal with internal heresies, especially Gnosticism (the belief that salvation came through spiritual knowledge), various mystery cults, and possibly Mithraism. Various elements of the cults may have been absorbed into Christianity, although scholars differ as to the level of influence thus exerted. That there were many pagan beliefs incorporated into Christian ideas remains a minority view among mainstream scholarship.
Early in the 4th century, the Emperor Constantine the Great legalized Christianity. Theodosius I established it as the official religion of the Roman Empire near the end of the century. From that time onwards, the history of Christianity is difficult to extricate from that of Europe (and several other culture-regions). After the religion's legalization, doctrinal disputes, especially regarding Christology, intensified, leading to internal strife and clearer dogmatic definitions through ecumenical councils. The Roman Empire, having become Christian, now suppressed the old pagan cults and also Christian heresies. Other peoples adopted Christianity, as in Armenia and Ethiopia, while among others ancient Christian minority communities developed, as in Persia and India. Various forms of monasticism also developed. In AD 302, Armenia became the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as its official state religion.
After the Western Roman Empire had been shattered during the Migration Period, the Germanic peoples and the Irish converted to Roman Christianity, while the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe adopted the Byzantine form of Christianity (e.g. Russia in 988). This was a gradual process, taking a long time in some regions, as seen in the pagan remnants in medieval literary works such as Beowulf and the Nibelungenlied. Cultural differences and disciplinary disputes divided East and West and resulted in the Great Schism (conventionally dated in 1054). This formally divided Christendom into two main groups: Roman Catholicism in the west, and Eastern Orthodoxy in the east.
From the 7th century, Christianity was challenged by Islam, which quickly conquered the Middle East and Northern Africa. Numerous military struggles followed, including the Crusades, the Spanish Reconquista and the eventual conquest of the Byzantine Empire and south-eastern Europe by the Turks.
Western Christianity in the Middle Ages was characterized by cooperation and conflict between the secular rulers and the Church under the Pope and the development of scholastic theology and philosophy. Later, increasing discontent with corruption and immorality among the clergy resulted in attempts to reform Church and society; but only after Martin Luther had published his 95 theses in 1517 and started the Protestant Reformation, did the Roman Catholic Church manage to renew itself at the Council of Trent. During the following centuries, Catholicism and Protestantism — the latter increasingly divided into denominations — competed with each other, while Christianity also spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Christianity was also confronted with the discoveries of science (notably heliocentricism, evolution), Enlightenment thinking, biblical criticism, social issues, and modern ideologies. Important developments in the 20th century were Ecumenism and the Charismatic Movement.
For the contributions of Christianity to the humanities and world culture, see Christian philosophy, Christian art, Christian literature, Christian music, Christian architecture.
[سمادول] Denominations
Within Christianity, numerous distinct groups have developed, with diverse beliefs that vary widely by culture and place. Since the Reformation, Christianity is usually represented as being divided into three main branches:
- Catholicism: The Roman Catholic Church, the largest single body — which includes several Eastern Catholic communities — as well as certain smaller communities (e.g., the Old-Catholics), with more than 1 billion baptized members.
- Eastern Christianity: Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Eastern Orthodox Churches, with a combined membership of more than 240 million baptized members.
- Protestantism: Numerous denominations and groups such as Anglicans, Lutherans, Reformed, Evangelical, Charismatic, Presbyterians, Baptists, Methodists, Anabaptists, and Pentecostals. The oldest of these groups separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th-century Protestant Reformation. The later groups typically formed as separations from the older ones. Some Protestants identify themselves simply as Christian, or born-again Christian. Others, particularly among Anglicans and in Neo-Lutheranism, identify themselves as being "both Catholic and Protestant". Worldwide total is just under 500 million.
Other denominations and churches which self-identify as Christian but which distance themselves from the above classifications together claim around 275 million members. These include African indigenous churches with up to 110 million members (estimates vary widely), The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (also called Mormons) with more than 12 million membersTemplate:Fn, Jehovah's Witnesses with approximately 6.6 million membersTemplate:Fn, and other groupsTemplate:Fn. The early leaders of most of these groups were originally Protestant adherents.
These broad divisions do not themselves encompass unanimity. On the contrary, some branches encompass vast disagreements, while in other cases the divisions overlook strong sympathies between and among the groups. Nevertheless, this tends to be the standard overview of distinctions, especially as viewed in the Western world.
[سمادول] عقيدې
Enormous diversity of belief exists among Christians. Nevertheless, certain doctrines have come to characterize the mainstream of Christian theology.
[سمادول] The Trinity
- Main article: Trinity
This is the belief that God is a single eternal being who exists as three distinct, eternal, and indivisible persons: Father, Son (Jesus), and Holy Spirit (or Holy Ghost).
[سمادول] The Messiah
Most Christians see Jesus Christ as the Messiah who was promised in the Old Testament Bible prophecy.
[سمادول] Jesus Christ as God
This is the belief that Jesus is both fully God (divine) and fully human: two natures in one person, as described in the Chalcedonian Creed. As a human, Jesus is believed to have possessed the qualities of mortality; he suffered the pains and temptations of mortal man. Significantly, he had the ability to die. Being divine, he possessed the ability to take up his own life again.
[سمادول] Crucifixion and Resurrection
This is the belief that Jesus died on the Cross, rose from the dead, and ascended into Heaven after appearing to his disciples, most notably to the Apostles.
[سمادول] Jesus Christ as Salvation
This is the belief that salvation from "sin and death" is available through the person and work of Jesus. Protestants, Catholics, and Orthodox Christians have arrived at several explanations as to exactly how this salvation occurs. (See soteriology.)
Most Christians interpret salvation to mean being able to enter heaven (and escape hell) after death, though some theologians have lamented this tendency. The question of "who is saved" has long been considered a dark mystery by many theologians, though most Protestants consider it a relatively simple issue of whether or not one has accepted Jesus as Lord and Savior.
[سمادول] The Second Coming
- Main article: Second Coming
This is the belief in the "General Resurrection", in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the end of time, to be judged by Christ on his return.
[سمادول] The Afterlife
Christian views of the afterlife generally involve heaven and (somewhat less frequently) hell, with Catholicism adding an intermediate realm of purgatory. Except for purgatory (whose denizens will ultimately enter heaven, after "purification"), these realms are usually assumed to be eternal. There is, however, some debate on this point, for example among the Orthodox.
It is generally unclear how the afterlife fits together with the doctrine of the General Resurrection — i.e. whether eternal life begins immediately after death, or at the end of time; and whether this afterlife will involve the resurrection of one's physical body (perhaps in a glorified spiritual form). Most Christians hold that one's consciousness, the soul, survives the death of the physical body, although the Jehovah's Witnesses, among others, reject this, saying that those who practiced good things will be resurrected to life and those who practiced vile things to a resurrection of judgement.
[سمادول] په عقيدو کې توپير
[سمادول] Nicene Creed
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- Main article: Nicene Creed
One statement describing the beliefs of a majority of Christians is the Nicene Creed, ratified as the universal creed of Eastern and Western Christendom by the Council of Ephesus in 431. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians disagree about the Filioque clause, which the Western Churches included later. Some Protestants reject the concept of formal creeds. The overwhelming majority of Christians accepts at least the content of the Nicene creed.
Central Christian beliefs which are affirmed in the Nicene Creed include, but are not limited to:
- The Trinity
- Jesus is both true God and true man.
- Salvation is available through the person and death of Jesus Christ.
- The virgin birth, crucifixion, resurrection, ascension, and Second Coming of Jesus.
- The resurrection of the dead, in which all people who have ever lived will rise from the dead at the end of time, to be judged by Christ.
Some groups, however, deviate from tenets which most others hold as absolutely basic to Christianity. On account of these deviations they are considered heretical, nontrinitarian, or even non-Christian by many of the mainstream Christian groups. Most such disputes center on the divinity of Jesus, the Trinity, or both. The Creed's words frequently target certain opposing beliefs of other early Christians, which the council regarded as heretical. Examples would include Ebionite groups which denied Jesus' divinity, a well as Docetist groups which denied that Christ was a human being, or Arians, who disputed that the Father and the Son were "of one being." Other early heresies included Simonianism, Marcionism, Gnosticism and Montanism. Again, while some churches take exception to some of these articles, to the extent that they do so, this usually represents a conscious departure from the Christian mainstream. Some Christian traditions, such as those of the Baptists and the Churches of Christ, would accept these beliefs, but not the creed itself, since they regard all creeds as unnecessary and even counter-productive.
[سمادول] Scriptures
[سمادول] Authority and Different Parts of the Bible
Virtually all Christian churches accept the authority of the Bible, including the Old Testament and the New Testament. Differences exist in the canons of the Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant churches — primarily their treatment of the Deuterocanonical books used by Catholic and Orthodox Churches, but rejected by Protestants as Apocrypha. This issue affects doctrines only indirectly. More theologically significant is the Swedenborgian churches' rejection of the New Testament Epistles, a stance which has not won acceptance from any other denomination.
Whereas Jews see the Torah as the most important part of the Bible, most Christians regard the Gospels, which tell of the life and teachings of Jesus, as central. Ornamental books of the four gospels are sometimes used in church liturgies. These may be carried into the church in procession, and laid upon the altar during the first part of the service. The "gospel" means the "good news" of the Christian message, which Christians regularly disseminate to others. This may include missionary work as well as the translation and distribution of Bibles, as practiced by Gideons International, Wycliffe Bible Translators and others.
[سمادول] Interpretation
If Christians largely agree on the content of the Bible, no such consensus is forthcoming on the crucial matter of its interpretation, an issue which divides denominations from within as well as from one another. "Biblical literalism" or "Christian fundamentalism" describe well-known conservative hermeneutic stances with respect to Christian scriptures, and are mainly associated with Protestantism.
Catholics, the Orthodox, and some Anglicans consider the Bible as having been produced by one phase (albeit formative) of the development of church tradition, or "Holy Tradition." This Holy Tradition has been established and perpetuated through the decisions of the ecumenical councils, the writings of the Church Fathers, the lives and teachings of the saints, liturgical practice, sacred art, and papal statements (for Roman Catholics), and is thought to be alive today. Indeed, one Orthodox theologian has characterized Holy Tradition as "the voice of the Holy Spirit in the Church."
Protestants, meanwhile, tend to strongly reject portions of "Holy Tradition" while readily accepting other portions. Most Protestants tend to accept Martin Luther's dictum of sola scriptura, which sees the Bible as the ultimate, or only, source of faith and doctrine. It also assumes that any Christian believer is capable of rightly interpreting it. Even Protestants concede that this view raises difficulties, especially given the wide variety of practices and beliefs which have some arguable claim to biblical warrant and, based on these divergences, because Protestantism has spawned such a large variety of denominations and traditions.
[سمادول] Other Works in Addition to the Scriptures
Some Christian groups have also elevated additional writings to the status of inspired scripture. Well-known examples would include the Book of Mormon, considered to be "another Testament of Jesus Christ" by the Latter Day Saints; several works of Ellen G. White, considered sacred by many Seventh-day Adventists; and Science and Health With Key to the Scriptures by Christian Science founder Mary Baker Eddy. Others, such as the Jehovah's Witnesses, have produced translations of the Bible which they hold to be wholly reliable. This elevation of other writings to the same level as accepted scriptures is a major cause for disputes between these groups and mainstream Christians. One might expect Lutherans and Calvinists to regard the interpretations of Luther and Calvin, respectively, with similar reverence, but most theologians agree that their writings are a mixture of good and bad, and are in no way "inspired."
[سمادول] Worship and practices
Orthodox and Catholic believers describe Christian worship in terms of the seven sacraments or "mysteries." These include baptism, the Eucharist (communion), matrimony, Holy Orders, confirmation or Chrismation, penance and reconciliation, and the Anointing of the Sick.
Many Protestant groups, following Martin Luther, recognize the sacramental nature of baptism and communion, but not usually the other five in the same way. Anabaptist and Brethren groups would add feet washing. Pentecostal, Charismatic, and Holiness Churches emphasize "gifts of the Spirit" such as spiritual healing, prophecy, exorcism, and speaking in tongues. These emphasis are used not as "sacraments" but as means of worship and ministry. The Quakers deny the entire concept of sacraments. Nevertheless, their "testimonies" affirming peace, integrity, equality, and simplicity are affirmed as integral parts of the Quaker belief structure.
In general, Protestants tend to view Christian rituals in terms of commemoration apart from mystery. Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Old-Catholic and many Anglican and Lutheran Christians hold the commemoration and mystery of rituals together, seeing no contradiction between them.
Virtually all Christians traditions affirm that Christian practice should include acts of personal piety such as prayer, Bible reading, and attempting to live a moral lifestyle, to include not only obedience to the Ten Commandments, as interpreted by Christ (as in the Sermon on the Mount), but also love for one's neighbor, whether friend or enemy, Christian or non-Christian, in both attitude and action. This love is commanded by Christ and, according to him, is next only in importance to love of God and includes obedience to such injunctions as "feed the hungry" and "shelter the homeless", both informally and formally. Christianity teaches that it is impossible for people to completely reform themselves, but that moral and spiritual progress can only occur with God's help through the gift of the Holy Spirit, who dwells within all faithful believers. Christians believe that by sharing in Christ's life, death, and resurrection they die with him to sin and can be resurrected with him to new life.
[سمادول] Weekly worship services
Justin Martyr (First Apology, chapter LXVII) describes a second-century church service thus:
- And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the president verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying Amen; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.
Justin's description, which applies to some extent to most church services today, alludes to the following components:
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- Scripture readings drawn from the Old Testament, one of the Gospels, or an Epistle. Often these are arranged systematically around an annual cycle, using a book called a lectionary.
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- A sermon. In ancient times this followed the scripture readings; today this may occur later in the service, although in liturgical churches, the sermon still often follows the readings.
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- Congregational prayer and thanksgiving. These will probably occur regularly throughout the service. Justin does not mention this, but some of these are likely to be sung in the form of hymns. The Lord's Prayer is especially likely to be recited.
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- The Eucharist (also called Holy Communion, or the Lord's Supper)— a ritual in which small amounts of bread and wine are consecrated, and then eaten and drunk. Some Christians say these represent the body and blood of Christ whereas Orthodox, Catholics, and most Anglicans say that they become the body and blood of Christ (the doctrine of the Real Presence). Churches in the "liturgical" family (Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican) see this as the main part of the service, while some Protestants may celebrate it less frequently. In many cases there are restrictions on who may partake, concerning which visitors should apprise themselves. For example, only Catholics free from unconfessed mortal sin may receive Communion in a Catholic church, though it is rare for the Eucharist to be denied to anyone.
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- A "collection" or "offering" in which the people are asked to contribute money. One common method is to pass around a collection plate. Christians traditionally use these monies not only for upkeep for the church, but also for charitable work of various types.
A number of variations or exceptions exist. Sometimes these are due to special events, such as baptisms or weddings which are incorporated into the service. In many churches today, children and youth will be excused from the main service in order to attend Sunday school. Many denominations depart from this general pattern in a more fundamental way. For example, the Seventh-day Adventists meet on Saturday (the biblical Sabbath), not Sunday, the day of Christ's resurrection. Charismatic or Pentecostal congregations may be spontaneously moved by the Holy Spirit, rather than follow a formal order of service. At a Quaker meeting, participants sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak.
In some denominations (mainly liturgical ones), the service is led by a priest. In others (mainly among Protestants), there is a minister, preacher, or pastor. Still others may lack formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. In addition, there are "high" church services, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "low" services at which a more casual atmosphere prevails, even if the service in question is liturgical in nature.
In Orthodox churches, the congregation traditionally stands throughout the liturgy (although allowances are made for human weakness). Roman Catholics and many Protestant churches follow a custom in which participants stand to sing, kneel to pray, and sit to listen (e.g., to the sermon). Others are less programmed, and may be quite lively and spontaneous. Music is usually incorporated, and often involves a choir and/or organ. Some churches use only a cappella music, either on principle (many Churches of Christ object to the use of musical instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
In many non-denominational Christian churches, as well as some Protestant denominations, there is usually a worship music portion of the service that precedes the sermon or message. This usually consists of the singing of hymns, praise and worship music or psalms. Many churches believe that worship is important to usher in the Presence of God for the rest of the service.
A recent trend is the growth of "convergence worship" which combines liturgy with spontaneity. This sort of worship is often a result of the influence of charismatic renewal within Churches which are traditionally liturgical. Convergence worship has spawned at least one new denomination, the Charismatic Episcopal Church.
[سمادول] Holidays
Catholics, Eastern Christians, and about half of the Protestants follow a liturgical calendar with various holidays. These calendars include feast days (where special worship services are held, to mark a special anniversary) as well as days of fasting. Typically, a feast will be found preceded by a traditional fast. The best-known fasting period is Lent.
Even Christians who do not follow a liturgical tradition can generally be found celebrating Christmas and Easter, despite some disagreement as to dates. A few churches object to the recognition of special holidays, or object to the pagan origins of Christmas and Easter.
[سمادول] Symbols
The best-known Christian symbol is the cross, of which many varieties exist. For convenience of recognition, several denominations tend to favor distinctive crosses: the crucifix for Catholics, the crux orthodoxa for Orthodox, and the unadorned cross for Protestants. However, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. Other Christian symbols include the ichthys ("fish") symbol, or in ancient times, an anchor.
[سمادول] Persecution
Template:POV-section
- Main articles: Persecution of Christians, Historical persecution by Christians
Christians have frequently suffered from persecution. During the first three centuries of its existence, Christianity was regarded with suspicion and frequently persecuted in the Roman Empire. Adherence to Christianity was declared illegal and especially in the 3rd century, the government demanded that their subjects, the Jews only excepted, sacrifice to the Emperor as a divinity, a practice that Christianity, along with Judaism, rejected. Persecution in the Roman Empire ended with the Edict of Milan, but it persisted or even intensified in other parts, such as Sassanid Persia or under Islam. In Europe it resurfaced during the French Revolution and its attempted Dechristianisation.
Christians have also been perpetrators of persecution, directed against members of other religions and also against other Christians. Christian mobs, sometimes with the government support, have destroyed pagan temples and oppressed adherents of paganism, e.g. the philosopher Hypatia of Alexandria, who was murdered by Christians. Jewish communities have periodically suffered violence at Christian hands, and occasionally committed violence against Christians. Christian governments have suppressed or persecuted dissenting Christian denominations and denominational strife has sometimes escalated into Religious wars. Witch hunts, carried out by secular authorities or popular mobs, were a frequent phenomenon in parts of early modern Europe and, to a lesser degree, North America.
In discussing persecution, we should be careful to distinguish between:
- official persecution by the state;
- acts of popular violence (which may be tacitly permitted by the state), and
- the side-effects of war and other social upheaval.
State oppression of Christians today is generally associated with Muslim or Communist countries. For example, the People's Republic of China allows only government-regulated churches, and regularly cracks down on house churches or underground Catholics. On a smaller scale, Greek and Russian governmental restrictions on non-Orthodox religious activity are examples. Some people cite anti-abortion violence in the United States, and the ongoing "troubles" in Northern Ireland as examples of 'persecution by Christians', despite the frequent condemnation of such activities by the vast majority of Christians. Complaints of discrimination have also been made of and by Christians in various contexts.
[سمادول] دا هم وګورۍ
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[سمادول] History and denominations
- Christian history
- Christian theological controversy
- Eastern Christianity portal
- Great Schism
- List of Christian denominations
[سمادول] Notes
- Template:FnbReligions by Adherents Adherents.com.
- Template:FnbWhile sharing the Hebrew Scriptures or "Old Testament", Christianity nonetheless disagrees with many points of the Jewish understanding of these texts, or their significance for practice, based on the understanding found in the "New Testament" and predominantly understandings found within the Pauline epistles.
- Template:FnbChristianity (2005) Adherents.com.
- Template:FnbWitness Membership 2005.
- Template:FnbMany Christians identify themselves as such not by the adherance to a set of religious rules or rites but instead by their personal relationship to Jesus Christ.
[سمادول] References and select bibliography
- Gonzalez, Justo L. (1984, 1985, 1999). The Story of Christianity. ISBN 1565635221.
- McGrath, Alister. Christian Theology: An Introduction. ISBN 0631225285.
- McGrath, Alister. Christian Theology Reader. ISBN 063120637X.
- Lewis, C.S. Mere Christianity.
- Oden, Thomas. Systematic Theology (an ecumenical trilogy)
- Volume 1: The Living God (1992, ISBN 0060663634)
- Volume 2: The Word of Life (1992, ISBN 0060663642)
- Volume 3: Life in the Spirit (1994, ISBN 0060663626)
- 1 Joseph McCabe, "A Rationalist Encyclopaedia: A book of reference on religion, philosophy, ethics and science," Gryphon Books (1971). Excerpts appear at: [1]
- Pelikan, Jaroslav (5 Volumes published between 1971-1989).The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine.
- Tolstoy, Leo (1894). The Kingdom of God is Within You. ISBN 0803294042.
- Tomkins, Stephen (2005). A Short History of Christianity (Lion).
- Francis Legge, Forerunners and Rivals of Christianity, From 330 B.C. to 330 A.D. (1914), reprinted as two volumes bound as one, University Books New York, 1964. LC Catalog 64-24125.
- Thomas William Doane, 1882, Bible Myths and their Parallels in Other Religions, is a bit outdated but a classic revelation of pagan antecedents of biblical myths and miracles.
- Edwin Johnson, 1887, Antiqua mater. A Study of Christian Origins. English radical theologian identified the early Christians as the Chrestiani, followers of a good (Chrestus) God who had expropriating the myth of Dionysos Eleutherios ("Dionysos the Emancipator"), to produce a self-sacrificing Jesus.
- Gerardus Bolland, 1907, De Evangelische Jozua. Philosopher at Leiden identified the origin of Christianity in an earlier Jewish Gnosticism. In 1907 Pope Pius X took action and condemned the Modernists who were "working within the framework of the Church". An anti-Modernist oath was introduced in 1910.
- Arthur Drews, 1910, Die Christusmythe (The Christ Myth); 1910, Die Petruslegende (The Legend of St Peter); 1924, Die Entstehung des Christentums aus dem Gnostizismus (The Emergence of Christianity from Gnosticism).
- Edward Carpenter, 1920, Pagan and Christian Creeds. Elaborated the pagan origins of Christianity.
- John J. Jackson, 1938, Christianity Before Christ, Drew attention to the Egyptian precedents of Christian belief.
- Herbert Cutner, 1950, Jesus: God, Man, or Myth? Mythical nature of Jesus and a summary of the ongoing debate between mythicists and historicizers. Pagan origins of Christ discussed.
- Georges Ory, 1961, An Analysis of Christian Origins.
- Guy Fau, 1967, Le Fable de Jesus Christ.
- John Allegro, 1970, The Sacred Mushroom and the Cross. 1979, The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Christian Myth.
- Max Rieser, 1979, The True Founder of Christianity and the Hellenistic Philosophy. Christianity started by Jews of the Diaspora and then retroactively set in pre-70 Palestine. Christianity arrived last, not first, in Palestine – that's why Christian archeological finds appear in Rome but not in Judea until the 4th century.
- Alvar Ellegard, 1999, Jesus One Hundred Years Before Christ. Christianity seen as emerging from the Essene Church of God with the Jesus prototype the Teacher of Righteousness.
- Timothy Freke, Peter Gandy, 1999, The Jesus Mysteries. 2001, Jesus and the Lost Goddess: The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians. Examines the close relationship between the Jesus Story and that of Osiris-Dionysus. Jesus and Mary Magdalene mythic figures based on the Pagan Godman and Goddess.
- Burton Mack, 2001,The Christian Myth: Origins, Logic, and Legacy. Social formation of myth making.
- Tom Harpur, 2005, The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light. Canadian New Testament scholar and ex-Anglican priest re-states the Christianity, it was clear, had not fallen from heaven but was a man-made production.
- Vermes, Geza and Martin D. Goodman, eds. The Essenes according to the Classical Sources. Sheffield: Oxford Centre for Postgraduate Hebrew Studies and JSOT Press, 1989.
[سمادول] External links
- Bible Gateway The Bible online.
- ReligionFacts.com: Christianity Fast facts, glossary, timeline, history, beliefs, texts, holidays, symbols, people, etc.
- WikiChristian, a wiki book on Christianity, church history and doctrine, and Christian art and music
- Syriac Orthodox Resources Large compendium of information and links relating to Oriental Orthodoxy.
- Rosicrucian Interpretation of Christianity, an esoteric view of Christian teachings.
- Cathar Interpretation of Christianity, a gnostic view of Christian teachings.
