乌尔都语

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乌尔都语 (-{اردو}-) 是属于印欧语系印度-伊朗语族的印度-雅利安语支。乌尔都语大约第20种世界上最多人使用的语言，是巴基斯坦的国语，也是印度的24种规定语言之一。如果从宏观角度来看，乌尔都语可看成是印度斯坦语 (Hindustani) 的一部分，所有印度斯坦语言构成世界上第四大的语言。

在1200年到1800年，南亚在德里王朝和莫卧儿帝国的统治下，乌尔都语的受到波斯语、土耳其语和阿拉伯语的影响。

[编辑] 使用者与其地理分布

乌尔都语母语使用者大约有6-8千万人。

在巴基斯坦的城市中，乌尔都语在中大多数人能通用，其中包括喀拉蚩、伊斯坦堡、拉合尔, Rawalpindi, 白沙瓦, Quetta, Hyderabad, Gujranwala, Faisalabad, Multan and Sukkur。乌尔都语是巴基斯坦所有省份的官方语言。在同时使用英语和乌尔都语的学校中，直至高中前，乌尔都语是强迫性学习的语言。这样使即使数以百万计以旁遮普语, 信德语, 普什图语, 克什米尔语, 俾路支语, Seraiki, Brohi等为母语的使用者的人，都能使用乌尔都语。乌尔都语是巴基斯坦的交际语，它混合了巴基斯坦不同地区的词汇，同样，巴基斯坦不同地区的语言也受到乌尔都语的词汇影响。在5百万来自不同种族 (如普什图族, 塔吉克族, 乌兹别克族, 哈扎拉族, 土库曼族等) 的阿富汗难民，而在巴基斯坦居住了超过 25 年的人，都能操流利乌尔都语。这样可推论出，使用乌尔都语的中心，已由印度的德里和 Lucknow，转而到巴基斯坦的喀拉蚩和拉合尔。

而在印度，乌尔都语在北方邦、克什米尔、德里、班加罗尔、海得拉巴、孟买和中部其他地区使用。一些印度学校以乌尔都语作为第一语言，并有其课程和考试。在印度的伊斯兰学校同时教授阿拉伯语和乌尔都语。一些报章如 Daily Salar, Paasban ，在班加罗尔等城市发行。

乌尔都语亦有在阿富汗的市区使用。而在南亚以外，亦有为数甚多的劳工，在波斯湾国家和沙特阿拉伯的主要城市中使用。在英国, 美国, 加拿大, 挪威和澳大利亚的大城市，也有乌尔都语移民和他们的后裔在使用此语言。

有较多人使用乌尔都语作为母语的国家：

[编辑] 官方地位

乌尔都语是巴基斯坦的官方语言（英语也是巴基斯坦的官方语言）。虽然英语在精英的圈子内使用，旁遮普语也有大量的母语使用者，乌尔都语作为交际语被广泛使用。乌尔都语也是印度、印度控制的克什米尔地区和安得拉邦的官方语言。虽然政府学校和大多数邦份着重使用标准印地语，但在 Lucknow 和海得拉巴的大学，乌尔都语有被使用，并被看成是种有威望的语言。

[编辑] 分类和相关语言

乌尔都语属于印度雅利安语族，也是印欧语系的一支。类似的方言分布在南亚从旁遮普到孟加拉的广泛区域中。这些语言有类似的语法结构和大部相同的词汇。旁遮普语就很类似于乌尔都语：如果用梵文字母书写的话，操乌尔都语的人不难看懂旁遮普语。但是旁遮普语口语发音同乌尔都语却有很大差别。同乌尔都语最接近的是印地语。

[编辑] 方言

Urdu has four recognized dialects, Dakhini, Pinjari, Rekhta, and Modern Vernacular Urdu.

Modern Vernacular Urdu is the form of the language that is most widespread and is spoken around Delhi, Lucknow, Karachi and Lahore.

Dakhini (also known as Dakani, Deccani, Desia, Mirgan) is spoken in Maharashtra state in India and around Hyderabad. It has fewer Persian and Arabic words than standard Urdu.

In addition, Rekhta (or Rekhti), the language of Urdu poetry, is sometimes counted as a separate dialect.

[编辑] 语法

烏爾都語的名詞分男性和女性。不過，有一些字詞的性別分類比較特別，通常是從英語來的新字詞，它們並無性別。 烏爾都語的名詞還有分單數和眾數。

[编辑] Levels of formality in Urdu

Urdu in its less formalized register has been referred to as a raikhtha (ریختہ, "rough mixture"). The more formal register of Urdu is sometimes referred to as Zaban-e-Urdu-e-Moalla (زبانﹺ اردوﹺ معلہ), the "Language of Camp and Court".

The etymology of the word used in the Urdu language for the most part decides how polite or refined your speech is. Urdu speakers would distinguish between paani and aab for example, or between kunwara and mard.

If a word is of Persian or Arabic origin, the level of speech is considered to be more formal and grand. Similarly, if Persian or Arabic grammar constructs, such as the Izafat are used in Urdu, the level of speech is also considered more formal and grand. An example of this would be the difference between Jinhe naaz hai Hind par, woh kahaan hai and sanaqaan-e-tasdeeq-e-mashriq kahaan hai.

[编辑] Politeness

A host of words are used to show respect and politeness. This emphasis on politeness, which is reflected in the vocabulary, is known as Takaluf in Urdu. These words are generally used when adressing elders, or people with whom one is not acquainted. For example the English pronoun 'you' can be translated into three words in Urdu: the singular forms 'tu' (informal, extremely intimate, or derogatory) and 'tum' (informal) and the plural forms 'aap' (formal and respectful).

[编辑] 词汇

Urdu has a vocabulary rich in words with Indian and Middle Eastern origins. The borrowings are dominated by words from Persian, and Arabic. There are also a number of borrowings from Sanskrit, Turkish, Portuguese and more recently English. Many of the words of Arabic origin have different nuances of meaning and usage than they do in Arabic. In fact, Urdu is the classical example of Muslim empire's curiosity.

[编辑] 书写形式

Urdu is written in a derivative of the Persian alphabet, which is itself derivative of the Arabic alphabet. Like Semitic Languages, Urdu script is written from right to left. Urdu is similar in appearance and letters to Arabic, Persian, and Pashto. In their modern incarnation, Urdu differs in appearance from Arabic in that it typically uses the more complex and sinuous Nasta’liq style of script, whereas Arabic is more commonly written in the modernized Naskh style. Nasta’liq is notoriously difficult to typeset, so Urdu newspapers were made from hand-written masters (a.k.a katib or khush-navees) until the late 1980s. The daily Jang was the first urdu newspaper composed in Nasta’liq on computer. There are efforts underway to develop more sophisticated and user-friendly Urdu support on computers and internet. Now-a-days, nearly all Urdu newspapers, magazines, journals, and periodicals composed on computers via various Urdu software.

Usually, bare transliterations of Urdu into Roman letters omit many phonemic elements which have no equivalent in English or other languages commonly written in the Latin alphabet. It should be noted that a reasonably comprehensive system has emerged with specific notations to signify non-English sounds, but it can only be properly read by someone already familiar with Urdu, Persian, or Arabic for letters such as:-{ژ خ غ ط ص}- or -{ق}- and Hindi for letters such as -{ڑ}-. This script may be found on the internet, and it allows people understanding the language without knowledge of their written forms to communicate with each other.

A list of the Urdu alphabet and pronunciation is given below . Urdu contains many historical spellings from Arabic and Persian, and therefore has many irregularities. The Arabic letters yaa and haa are split in two in Urdu; one of the yaa variants is used at the ends of words for a long ē sound, and one of the haa variants is used to indicate the aspirated consonants. The retroflex consonants needed to be added as well; this was accomplished by placing a superscript ط (toay) above the corresponding dental consonants. Several letters which represent distinct consonants in Arabic are conflated in Persian, and this has carried over to Urdu.

Urdu is occasionally also written in the Roman script. Roman Urdu has been used since the days of the British Raj, partly as a result of the availability and low cost of Roman movable type for printing presses. The use of Roman Urdu was common in contexts such as product labels. Today it is regaining popularity among users of text-messaging and Internet services and is developing its own style and conventions. Habib R. Sulemani says, "the younger generation of Urdu speaking people around the world are using [Romanized Urdu] on the Internet and it has become essential for them, because they use the Internet and English is its language. A person from Islamabad chats with another in Delhi on the Internet only in Roman Urdu. They both speak (almost) the same language but with different scripts […]. Moreover, the younger generation of those who are from the English medium schools or settled in the west, can speak Urdu but can’t write it in the traditional Arabic script and thus Roman Urdu is a blessing for such a population."

[编辑] 例子

[编辑] 文学

Urdu has only become a literary language in recent centuries, as Persian and Arabic were formerly the idioms of choice for "elevated" subjects. However, despite its late development, Urdu literature boasts some world-recognized artists and a considerable corpus.

[编辑] Prose

[编辑] Religious

After Arabic and Persian, Urdu holds the largest collection of work on Islamic literature and sharia. These include translations and interpretation of Quran, commentary on Hadith, Fiqh, history, spirituality, Sufism and metaphysics. A great number of classical texts from Arabic and Persian, have also been translated into Urdu. Relatively inexpensive publishing, combined with the use of Urdu as a lingua franca among Muslims of South Asia, has meant that Islam-related works in Urdu far outnumber such works in any other South Asian language. One of the most popular Islamic books was originally written in Urdu, the Faizal-e-Amal.

[编辑] Literary

Secular prose includes all categories of widely known fiction and non-fiction work, separable into genres.

The daastaan, or tale, a traditional story which may have many characters and complex plotting. This has now fallen into disuse.

The afsaana, or short story, probably the best-known genre of Urdu fiction. The best-known afsaana writers, or afsaana nigaar, in Urdu are Saadat Hasan Manto, Qurat-ul-Ain Haider, Munshi Premchand, Krishan Chander, Ghulam Abbas, Banu Qudsia and Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi. Premchand, a Hindi writer, became known as a pioneer in the afsaana, though some contend that his were not technically the first as Sir Ross Masood had already written many short stories in Urdu.

Novels form a genre of their own, in the tradition of the English novel.

Other genres include saférnama, sarguzisht, inshaeya, murasela, and khud navvisht.

[编辑] Poetry

Urdu has been the premiere language of poetry in South Asia for two centuries, and has developed a rich tradition in a variety of poetic genres. The 'Ghazal' in Urdu represents the most popular form of subjective poetry, while the 'Nazm' exemplifies the objective kind, often reserved for narrative, descriptive, didactic or satirical purposes. Under the broad head of the Nazm we may also include the classical forms of poems known by specific names such as 'Masnavi' (a long narrative poem in rhyming couplets on any theme: romantic, religious, or didactic), 'Marsia' (an elegy traditionally meant to commemorate the martyrdom of Hazrat Imam Hussain, grandson of Prophet Muhammad, and his comrades of the Karbala fame), or 'Qasida' (a panegyric written in praise of a king or a nobleman), for all these poems have a single presiding subject, logically developed and concluded. However, these poetic species have an old world aura about their subject and style, and are different from the modern Nazm, supposed to have come into vogue in the later part of the nineteenth century.

• Ghazal (غزل), as practiced by many poets in the Arab tradition. Mir, Ghalib, Dagh and Faiz are well-known composers of ghazal.
• Nazm
• Qat'ã
• Rubai (a.k.a. Rubayyat or Rubaiyat)
• Masnavi
• Musaddas
• Qaseeda (a.k.a. Qasida)
• Geet
• Sehra
• Marsia
• Shehr aashob
• Doha, Urdu

Foreign forms such as the sonnet, azad nazm and haiku have also been used by some modern Urdu poets.

Probably the most widely recited, and memorized genre of contemporary Urdu poetry is naat—panegyric poetry written in praise of the Prophet Muhammad. Naat can be of any formal category, but is most commonly in the ghazal form. The language used in Urdu naat ranges from the intensely colloquial to a highly Persianized formal language. The great early twentieth century scholar Imam Ahmad Raza Khan, who wrote many of the most well known naats in Urdu, epitomized this range in a ghazal of nine stanzas (bayt) in which every stanza contains half a line each of Arabic, Persian, formal Urdu, and colloquial Hindi. The same poet composed a salaam—a poem of greeting to the Prophet Muhammad, derived from the unorthodox practice of qiyam, or standing, during the mawlid, or celebration of the birth of the Prophet—Mustafa Jan-e Rahmat, which, due to being recited on Fridays in some Urdu speaking mosques throughout the world, is probably the more frequently recited Urdu poems of the modern era.

Another important genre of urdu prose are the poems commemorating the martyrdom of imam Hussain and Battle of Karbala, called noha (نوحہ) and marsia. Anees and Dabeer are famous in this regard.

[编辑] 历史

Urdu developed as local Indo-Aryan dialects came under the influence of the Muslim courts that ruled the South Asia from the early thirteenth century on. The official language of the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughal Empire, and their successor states, as well as the cultured language of poetry and literature, was Persian, while the language of religion was Arabic. Most of the Sultans and nobility in during the Sultanate period were Persianized Turks from Central Asia and they spoke Turkish as their mother tongue. The Mughals were also Turks from Cental Asia and spoke Persian as a second language. The mingling of these languages led to a vernacular that is the ancestor of today's Urdu. Dialects of this vernacular are spoken today in cities and villages throughout Pakistan and northern India. Cities with a particularly strong tradition of Urdu include Hyderabad, Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, and Lucknow.

The birthplace of the Urdu language is not known with certainty. Urdu literature has been found from the Delhi Sultanate. One hypothesis proposes that Urdu originated in or around Delhi over a period of several centuries, and that initially it was used and adopted by Muslims. The word urdu itself comes from the Turkish word ordu, "tent" or "army", from which we get the word "horde". Hence Urdu is sometimes called "Lashkari zaban" or the language of the Army.

Wherever Muslim soldiers and officials settled, they carried Urdu with them. Urdu (along with Persian) enjoyed commanding status in the literary courts of Muslim rulers and nawabs, and flourished under their patronage, partially displacing Sanskrit as the language of religious intellectuals in Indian society. The prestige bestowed upon Urdu at the expense of Sanskrit was a source of irritation for many religious Hindus, and to this day there remains religiously motivated conflict between the languages that sometimes makes dialogue difficult.

[编辑] 乌尔都语和印地语

Standard Urdu and Standard Hindi are distinct languages. There are two fundamental distinctions between them: the source of borrowed vocabulary (Persian or Sanskrit), and the script used to write them (an adaptation of the Persian script written in Nasta'liq style, or the devanagari alphabet). In colloquial situations in Delhi, where neither learned vocabulary nor writing is used, the distinction between the Urdu and Hindi is nearly meaningless. Outside of the Delhi dialect area, the distinction may be more pronounced even in colloquial speech, for "Hindi" in such cases will often refer to the local dialect.

The word 'Hindi' has two uses; confusion of these is one of the primary causes of debate about the identity of Urdu.

• One use of 'Hindi' is to indicate those idioms in the North Indian dialect continuum that are not recognized as separate languages from the language of Delhi. Bengali and Nepali are not considered Hindi because of their long history as literary languages and because of official recognition. Panjabi, Bihari, and Chhatisghari are also often recognized to be distinct languages, though sometimes considered Hindi dialects. However, many other local idioms, such as the Bhili languages, which do not have such a distinct identity, are almost always considered to be dialects of Hindi. In other words, the boundaries of "Hindi" have little to do with mutual intelligibility, and instead depend on social perceptions of what constitutes a language.
• The other use of the word is Standard Hindi, the specific form (Khariboli) of the Delhi dialect of Hindi (generally called Hindustani) that is India's foremost national language.

Standard Urdu is also a standardized form of Hindustani. Such a state of affairs, with two standardized forms of what is essentially one language, is known as a diasystem.

Colloquial Urdu, on the other hand, basically is Hindustani; it can be argued that Standard Hindi is a form of colloquial Urdu, intentionally de-Persianized and de-Arabicized, with its formal vocabulary borrowed instead from Sanskrit. The colloquial language spoken by villagers and the lower classes of Delhi is indistinguishable by ear, whether it is called Hindi or Urdu by its speakers. The only important distinction at this level is in the script: if written in the Arab-Persian script, the language is generally considered to be Urdu, and if written in devanagari it is generally considered to be Hindi. However, since independence the formal registers used in education and the media have become increasingly divergent in their vocabulary. Where there is no colloquial word for a concept, Standard Urdu uses Perso-Arabic vocabulary, while Standard Hindi uses Sanskrit vocabulary. This results in the official languages being heavily Sanskritized or Persianized, and nearly unintelligible to speakers educated in the other standard.

These two standardized registers of Hindustani have become so entrenched as separate languages that often nationalists, both Hindu and Muslim, claim that Hindi and Urdu have always been separate languages. However, there are unifying forces as well. For example, it is said that Indian Bollywood films are made in "Hindi", but the language used in most of them is the same as that of Urdu speakers in Pakistan. The dialogue is frequently developed in English and later translated to an intentionally neutral Hindustani which can be easily understood by speakers of most North Indian languages, both in India itself and in Pakistan.

[编辑] 备注

¹As in Ghalib's famous couplet where he compares himself to his great predecessor, the master poet Mir :

Urdu Script

ریختــہ کے تــم ہـی استــاد نہیں ہـو غــالب

کہتے ہیں اگلے زمانے میں کوئی میر بھی تھا

Romanized

Raikhtha kai tum hee ustadh nahee ho Ghalib

Kehthay hain aglay zamaanay main ko'ee Mir bhee thhaa

Translation

You, alone, are not the only expert of 'Raikhta', Ghalib

It is said that even once there existed someone named, Mir

[编辑] 参考书籍

• Asher, R. E. (Ed.). (1994). The Encyclopedia of language and linguistics. Oxford: Pergamon Press. ISBN 0-0803-5943-4.
• Azim, Anwar. (1975). Urdu a victim of cultural genocide. In Z. Imam (Ed.), Muslims in India (p. 259).
• Chatterji, Suniti K. (1960). Indo-Aryan and Hindi (rev. 2nd ed.). Calcutta: Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay.
• Dua, Hans R. (1992). Hindi-Urdu as a pluricentric language. In M. G. Clyne (Ed.), Pluricentric languages: Differing norms in different nations. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-1101-2855-1.
• Dua, Hans R. (1994b). Urdu. In Asher (Ed.) (pp. 4863-4864).
• Dua, Hans R. (1994a). Hindustani. In Asher (Ed.) (pp. 1554).
• Kelkar, A. R. (1968). Studies in Hindi-Urdu: Introduction and word phonology. Poona: Deccan College.
• Khan, M. H. (1969). Urdu. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current trends in linguistics (Vol. 5). The Hague: Mouton.
• Narang, G. C.; & Becker, D. A. (1971). Aspiration and nasalization in the generative phonology of Hindi-Urdu. Language, 47, 646-767.
• Ohala, M. (1972). Topics in Hindi-Urdu phonology. (PhD dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles).
• Rai, Amrit. (1984). A house divided: The origin and development of Hindi-Hindustani. Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-1956-1643-X.

[编辑] 参看

• 印度
• 印度语言
• 巴基斯坦
• 巴基斯坦语言
• 乌尔都文学
• 普什图语

[编辑] 外部链接

維基百科有此種語言版本:

乌尔都语维基百科

[编辑] Sites About Urdu

• TheUrduLanguage.com Urdu History
• Urdu is our Main Point: Having Great Resources of Urdu Poetry,Hamd,Naat,Mizah,News etc...
• CRULP Center for research in Urdu language processing
• Urdustan.com : oldest Urdu language website
• Introductory Urdu (Volume 1)
• Introductory Urdu (Volume 2)
• Urdu Wiktionary
• Wikitravel Hindi-Urdu Phrasebook
• History of Urdu Literature
• NeoSense Urdu Extension for Ligature Parsing

[编辑] Online Use of Urdu

• Online Dictionary
• Urdu: Digital Library of Urdu Books. Allama Iqbal Urdu Cyber Library Network
• Urdu Poetry,Funny Poetry: Having Great Resources of Urdu Poetry,Hamd,Naat,Mizah,News etc...
• Shairy.com: Largest collection of Online Urdu poetry,Urdu Shairee, Shairy and forum
• Al Qamar Online Urdu Network from London
• UrduWiki
• Collaborative blog discussing the Urdu language and the affiliated culture
• Blogging In Urdu
• List of blogs in Urdu
• Templates for blogging in Urdu
• BBC News in Urdu
• Roznama Boriat Karachi - Spoof News in Urdu
• NHK烏爾都語(Urdu)廣播