管理学
维基百科，自由的百科全书
管理学有两种认识：
- 运筹学(Operation Research)是一门运用科学，并不是纯粹的数学，它具有多学科交叉的特点，如综合运用经济学、心理学、物理、化学等等中的方法来解决实际问题。
- 管理科学(Management Science)是一门研究人类管理活动规律及其应用的科学。它偏重于用一些工具和方法来解决管理上的问题，如用运筹学、统计学等来定量定性分析。
以前管理科学主要用运筹学来解决管理中碰到的问题。近十几年管理科学发展很快，它已经不单单是用运筹学来分析一些具体问题，而是用自然科学与社会科学两大领域的综合性交叉科学来分析如运作管理，人力资源管理，风险管理与不确定性决策，复杂系统的演化、涌现、自适应、自组织、自相似的机理等。已经不是一个运筹学所能涵盖的。
一些人认为管理学应该归入自然科学，而另外一些人则认为应该归入社会科学。
- Manager redirects to here. For use in sports, see Coach (sport) or Manager (baseball).
- Enterprise management redirects to here. For use in computer networks, see Network management or Systems management
"管理" (在古老法文解釋中管理是 領導、執行的藝術」；在拉丁文解釋裡 是「以手領導」)領導和管理所有組織(通常是商業組織)的特色；透過調度和運用各種人際上 、財務方面、原料類、知識上或其它無形的資源。二十世紀早期管理學作家 瑪麗．法雷特 把管理學定義為「讓人們做事的藝術」。
我們也可以很實際地定義管理，把它當作在一個規律的原則上測量事物的品質然後修正一些原先的計畫，而這些行為都是為了達到預期的目標。這在一些計畫不會實現的情況上也適用。由此來看，管理有五大作用：計畫、組織、領導、協調、掌控。
管理也被稱為「商業管理」，教管理的學校叫「商學院」。「管理」這個字的意思也可以用來描述組織的經理候選人，例如法人。管理體系是一個用來描述用來管理一個組織的團體的字眼，例如一個運動聯盟。
目录 |
[编辑] 歷史發展
一些作者追溯管理學的發展可以從蘇美人和古埃及金字塔的建造者談起。那個世紀的奴隸主人面臨了工作上反抗的力量但很多早期工業企業利用本身的一些權力，使他們不必被迫去面臨管理系統化的問題。但一些像阿拉伯數字的傳播(5世紀到15世紀)和複式記帳法的法典編纂(1494)等的創新提供工具給管理估計、計畫和控制。
[编辑] 十九世紀
Modern management as a discipline began as an off-shoot of economics in the 19th century. Classical economists such as Adam Smith and John Stuart Mill provided a theoretical background to resource allocation, production, and pricing issues. About the same time, innovators like Eli Whitney, James Watt, and Matthew Boulton developed technical production elements such as standardization, quality control procedures, cost accounting, interchangeability of parts, and work planning.
By the middle of the 19th century, Robert Owen, Henry Poor, and M. Laughlin and others introduced the human element with theories of worker training, motivation, organizational structure and span of control. Compare the analyses of Karl Marx and of Friedrich Engels.
By the late 19th century, marginal economists Alfred Marshall and Leon Walras and others introduced a new layer of complexity to the theoretical underpinings of management. Joseph Wharton offered the first tertiary-level course in management in 1881.
[编辑] 二十世紀
By about 1900 we find managers trying to place their theories on a thoroughly scientific basis. Examples include Henry Towne's Science of management in the 1890s, Frederick Winslow Taylor's Scientific management (1911), Frank and Lillian Gilbreth's Applied motion study (1917), and Henry L. Gantt's charts (1910s). J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911.
The first comprehensive theories of management appeared around 1920. People like Henri Fayol and Alexander Church described the various branches of management and their inter-relationships. In the early 20th century, people like Ordwat Tead, Walter Scott and J. Mooney applied the principles of psychology to management, while other writers, such as Elton Mayo, Mary Parker Follett, Chester Barnard, Max Weber, Rensis Likert, and Chris Argyris approached the phenomenon of management from a sociological perspective.
Peter Drucker wrote one of the earliest books on applied management: Concept of the Corporation (published in 1946). It resulted from Alfred Sloan (chairman of General Motors until 1956) commissioning a study of the organisation. Drucker has gone on to write 32 books, many in the same vein.
H. Dodge, Ronald Fisher, and Thorton C. Fry introduced statistical techniques into management. In the 1940s, Patrick Blackett combined these statistical theories with microeconomic theory and gave birth to the science of operations research. Operations research, sometimes known as "management science", attempts to take a scientific approach to solving management problems, particularly in the areas of logistics and operations.
Some of the more recent developments include the theory of constraints, Management by objectives, reengineering, and various information technology driven theories such as agile software development as well as group management theories such as Cog's Ladder.
As the general recognition of managers as a class solidified during the 20th century and gave perceived practitioners of management a certain amount of prestige, so the way opened for popularised systems of management ideas to peddle their wares. In this context many management fads may have had more to do with pop psychology than with scientific management theory.
Towards the end of the 20th century, business management came to consist of six separate branches, namely:
- 人力資源管理
- Operations management or production management
- Strategic management
- 市場管理
- 財務管理
- Information Technology management
[编辑] 二十一世紀
In the 21st century we find it increasingly difficult to subdivide management into functional categories in this way. More and more processes simultaneously involve several categories. Instead, we tend to think in terms of the various processes, tasks, and objects subject to management. The unicist approach to management promotes a natural way to manage business. A list of some of the areas of management can be found later in this article.
It is also the case that many of the assumptions made by management have been under attack from business ethics, critical management studies, and anti-corporate activism.
One consequence is that workplace democracy has become both more common, and more advocated, in some places distributing all management functions among the workers, each of whom takes on a portion of the work. However, these models predate any current political issue, and may be more natural than command hierarchy. All management is to some degree democratic in that there must be majority support of workers for the management in the long term, or they leave to find other work, or go on strike. Hence management is becoming less about command-and-control, and more about facilitation and support of collaborative activity, utilizing principles such as those of human interaction management to deal with the complexities of human interaction.
[编辑] Nature of the work
In for-profit work, the primary function of management is to satisfy a range of stakeholders. This typically involves making a profit (for the shareholders), creating valued products at a reasonable cost (for customers), and providing rewarding employment opportunities (for employees). In nonprofit work it is also important to keep the faith of donors. In most models of management, shareholders vote for the board of directors, and that board then hires senior management. Some organizations are experimenting with other methods (such as employee voting models) of selecting or reviewing managers/senior managers but this is very rare.
In the public sector of countries constituted as representative democracies, politicians are elected to public office. They hire many managers and administrators, and in some countries like the United States a great many people lose jobs when a new President comes into office. 2500 people serve "at the pleasure of the President" including all the top US government executives.
Public, private and voluntary sectors place different demands on managers, but all must retain the faith of those who select them (if they wish to retain their jobs), retain the faith of those people that fund the organization, and retain the faith of those who work for the organization. If they fail to convince employees that they are better off staying than leaving, the organization will be forced into a downward spiral of hiring, training, firing, and recruiting.
Management also has a responsibility to innovate and improve the functioning of the organization.
In all but the smallest organizations, achieving these objectives involves a division of management labour. People specialize in a limited range of functions so as to more quickly gain competence and expertise. Even in employee managed workplaces such as a Wobbly Shop, where managers are elected, or where latitude of action is sharply restricted by collective bargaining or unions, managers still take on roughly the same functions and job descriptions as in a more traditional command hierarchy.
Chief Executive Officer (CEO) - The CEO is ultimately responsible for the success or failure of the business. He or she provides overall strategic direction for the firm, often with the assistance of a team of vice presidents. Strategic management decisions like what products to market, what market segments to target, what functions to outsource, what business model to employ, and what geographical areas to operate in are the responsibility of the CEO. The CEO is accountable to the board of directors. Typically a CEO will delegate many responsibilities to one or more executive vice presidents.
In small firms, the owner, president, or chief executive officer typically assume many roles and responsibilities.
Vice President, Marketing - An executive vice president of marketing might direct overall marketing strategies, advertising, promotions, sales, product management, pricing, and public relations policies. The direct reports of the EVP oversee advertising and promotion. In a small firm, they may serve as a liaison between the firm and the advertising or promotion agency to which many advertising or promotional functions are contracted out. In larger firms, advertising managers oversee in-house account, creative, and media services departments.
Marketing Managers - Marketing managers develop the firm's detailed marketing plans and procedures. With the help of subordinates, including product development managers and market research managers, they determine the demand for products and services offered by the firm and its competitors. In addition, they identify potential markets—for example, business firms, wholesalers, retailers, government, or the general public. Marketing managers develop pricing strategy with an eye towards maximizing the firm's share of the market and its profits while ensuring that the customers are satisfied. In collaboration with sales, product development, and other managers, they monitor trends that indicate the need for new products and services and oversee product development. Marketing managers work with advertising and promotion managers to promote the firm's products and services and to attract potential users.
Promotions Managers - Promotions managers supervise sales promotion specialists. They direct promotion programs that combine advertising with purchase incentives to increase sales. In an effort to establish closer contact with purchasers—dealers, distributors, or consumers—promotion programs may involve direct mail, telemarketing, television or radio advertising, catalogs, exhibits, inserts in newspapers, Internet advertisements or websites, in-store displays or product endorsements, and special events. Purchase incentives may include discounts, samples, gifts, rebates, coupons, sweepstakes, and contests.
Public Relations Managers - Public relations managers supervise public relations specialists. These managers direct publicity programs to a targeted public. They often specialize in a specific area, such as crisis management or in a specific industry, such as healthcare. They use every available communication medium in their effort to maintain the support of the specific group upon whom their organization's success depends, such as consumers, stockholders, or the general public. For example, public relations managers may clarify or justify the firms point of view on health or environmental issues to community or special interest groups.
They also evaluate advertising and promotion programs for compatibility with public relations efforts and serve as the eyes and ears of top management. They observe social, economic, and political trends that might ultimately affect the firm and make recommendations to enhance the firm's image based on those trends.
They may also confer with labor relations managers to produce internal company communications—such as newsletters about employee-management relations—and with financial managers to produce company reports. They assist company executives in drafting speeches, arranging interviews, and maintaining other forms of public contact; oversee company archives; and respond to information requests. In addition, some handle special events such as sponsorship of races, parties introducing new products, or other activities the firm supports in order to gain public attention through the press without advertising directly.
Sales Managers - Sales managers direct the firm's sales program. They assign sales territories, set goals, and establish training programs for the sales representatives. Managers advise the sales representatives on ways to improve their sales performance. In large, multiproduct firms, they oversee regional and local sales managers and their subordinates. Sales managers maintain contact with dealers and distributors. They analyze sales statistics gathered by their staffs to determine sales potential and inventory requirements and monitor the preferences of customers. Such information is vital to develop products and maximize profits.
Account Executive - The account executive manages the account services department, assesses the need for advertising, and, in advertising agencies, maintains the accounts of clients.
Creative Director - The creative services department develops the subject matter and presentation of advertising. The creative director oversees the copy chief, art director, and associated staff.
Media Director - The media director oversees planning groups that select the communication media—for example, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, Internet, or outdoor signs—to disseminate the advertising.
[编辑] References
- Management Courses at MIT Sloan, OpenCourseWare
- Research on Organizations: Bibliography Database and Maps
[编辑] 管理理論
管理理論是指管理學學者經過反覆驗證修訂後，用以解釋管理現象的理論，取自周敬偉教授在《管理理論和應用》一書中，常見的管理理論如下：
- 摩菲定理, 墨菲法則(Murphy's Law)
- 彼得原則(The Peter Principle - Why Things Always Go Wrong)
- 權變論
- X和Y理論(Theories X & Y)
- 機構成員性格論
- 理性型性格論
- 順服論
- 領導論
[编辑] 管理学的分支
- 中國管理
- 管理思想史
- 管理心理学
- 管理计量学
- 部门经济管理
- 科学学
- 科学社会学
- 科技政策学
- 科学心理学
- 科学计量学
- 科技管理学
- 企业管理
- 项目管理
- 项目整体管理
- 项目范围管理
- 项目时间管理
- 项目成本管理
- 项目质量管理
- 项目人力资源管理
- 项目沟通管理
- 项目风险管理
- 项目采购管理1
- 行政管理
- 管理工程
- 人力资源开发与管理
- 人力资源开发战略
- 人才学
- 未来学
- 理论预测学
- 预测评价学
- 技术评估学
- 全球未来学
其他与管理学有关的学科：
[编辑] 管理理论
[编辑] 著名管理学家
- 弗里德里克·泰勒[美国]（Frederick Taylor）（又译弗里德里克·泰罗,被誉为“科学管理之父”）
- 亨利·法约尔[法国]（Henri Fayol）（古典管理理论创始人之一）
- 马科斯·韦伯[德国]
- 切斯特·巴纳德（Chester Barnard）
- 彼得·德鲁克 （Peter Drucker）(公认的现代管理学科的奠基人)
- 亨利·明茨伯格[美国]
- 戴维·麦克里兰
- 杰伊·洛维
- 威廉·大内
- 彼得·圣吉(“学习型组织”的创始人)
- 迈克尔·波特（Micheal Porter）
[编辑] Areas of management
- Administrative management
- Human resources management
- Accounting management
- Strategic management
- Association management
- Change management
- Communication management
- Constraint management
- Cost management
- Crisis management
- Customer relationship management
- Earned value management
- Enterprise management
- Facility management
- Financial management
- Human interaction management
- Integration management
- Interim management
- Knowledge management
- Land management
- Logistics management
- Marketing management
- Operations management
- Pain management
- Perception management
- Procurement management
- Program management
- Project management
- Process management
- Personal management
- Product management
- Quality management
- Resource management
- Risk management
- Skills management
- Spend management
- Stress management
- Supply chain management
- Systems management
- Talent management
- Time management
[编辑] See also
- Adhocracy
- Administration
- Design management
- Engineering management
- Management consulting
- Management development
- Management styles
- Management Technology
- Managing upwards
- Micromanagement
- Middle management
- Knowledge visualization
- Music management
- Poor management
- Senior management
- Virtual management
- Peter Drucker's management by objectives
- Eliyahu M. Goldratt's theory of constraints
- Pointy Haired Boss —negative stereotypes of managers
[编辑] 參考
《管理理論和應用》; 周敬偉著, 香港 : 中文大學出版社, 1989.
[编辑] Lists
- List of management topics
- List of marketing topics
- List of human resource management topics
- List of economics topics
- List of finance topics
- List of accounting topics
- List of information technology management topics
- List of production topics
- List of business law topics
- List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics
- List of business theorists
- List of economists
- List of corporate leaders
- List of companies
[编辑] 外部链接
页面分类: 翻譯請求 | Management occupations | Management | Organizations | 管理学
