Augustus
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Augustus (Bahasa Latin: IMPERATOR CAESAR DIVI FILIVS AVGVSTVS;[1] 23 September 63 SM – 19 Ogos AD 14), dikenali sebagai Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (dalam bahasa Inggeris: Octavian) untuk jangka hayatnya sebelum 27 SM, merupakan maharaja pertama dan antara yang terpenting empayar Rom.
Walaupun dia telah mengekalkan bentuk luaran Republik Rom, dia memerintah sebagai autokrat selama lebih 40 tahun dan tempoh pemerintahannya merupakan garis pembahagi antara Republik dan Empayar Rom. Dia telah menamatkan satu abad perang saudara dan memberi Rom satu era keamanan, kemakmuran dan kehebatan empayar yang dikenali sebagai Pax Romana ataupun keamaman Rom.
[Sunting] Kehidupan awal
Beliau telah dilahirkan di Rom (atau Velletri) pada 23 September 63 SM dengan nama Gaius Octavius. Bapanya juga bernama Gaius Octavius dan berketurunan keluarga terhormat darjah kebesaran equestrian akan tetapi tidak terkemuka dan merupakan gabenor Macedonia. Tidak lama selepas kelahiran Octavius, bapanya telah memberikannya gelaran Thurinus, yang berkemungkinan bersempena kemenangannya di Thurii menghadapi penentangan hamba-hamba. Ibunya, Atia, merupakan anak saudara kepada Julius Caesar yang kemudian menjadi jeneral Rom yang paling berjaya dan diktator. Dia menghabiskan tahun-tahun awalnya di rumah datuknya berhampiran Veletrae (nama moden Velletri). Pada 58 SM, semasa beliau berusia empat tahun, bapanya telah meninggal dunia. Bapa tirinya, Lucius Marcius Philippus, kemudian telah menjaganya.
Pada 51 SM sewaktu beliau berusaha sebelas tahun, Octavius telah berucap di pengebumian neneknya Julia, kakak kepada Julius Caesar. Caesar meminta Octavius mengikuti rombongannya dalam kempen di Afrika, akan tetapi dibantah Atia, yang mengatakan bahawa dia terlampau muda. Atia akhirnya memberikan kebenarannya pada tahun berikutnya iaitu 46 SM untuk menemani Caesar di Hispania, akan tetapi Octavius sendiri telah jatuh sakit dan tidak dapat mengembara. Setelah pulih, dia berlayar ke kawasan pertembungan, tetapi kapalnya karam. Beliau bersama beberapa orang sahabat berjaya menyelamatkan diri ke persisiran pantai dan merentasi kawasan musuh ke kem ketenteraan Caesar, dan ini membuatkan datuk saudaranya itu kagum. Caesar dan Octavius telah pulang dalam pedati yang sama, dan Caesar telah secara rahsia menukar kandungan wasiatnya.
[Sunting] Kenaikan pangkat
Apabila Caesar terbunuh pada tarikh Ides of March (15hb) 44 SM, Octavius sedang menuntut di Apollonia, Illyria. Apabila wasiat Caesar dibaca ia mendedahkan bahawa Ceasar telah mengangkat cucu saudaranya Octavius sebagai anak dan pewaris utamanya memandangkan Caesar sendiri tidak mempunyai anak yang sah. Melalui pengangkatannya Octavius telah mendapat nama Gaius Julius Ceasar. Tradisi Rom menyatakan bahawa dia mesti menggunakan gelaran Octavianus (Octavian) untuk mewakili keluarga biologinya; tetapi tiada bukti beliau telah menggunakan nama ini. Mark Antony kemudiannya mendakwa bahawa Octavius telah mendapat angkatan itu melalui pemberian hubungan seksual, walaupun Suetonius mengatakan bahawa dakwaan Antony itu satu fitnah politik.[2]
Octavian merekrut kuasa kecil di Apollonia. Kemudian menyeberang ke Italia, dia menguatkan tentera peribadinya dengan askar legion veteran Caesar, mendapat sokongan dengan menekankan statusnya sebgai waris Caesar. Baru berusia lapan belas tahun, dia sentiasa dipandang rendah oleh musuhnya yang inginkan kuasa.
In Rome, he found Mark Antony and the Optimates led by Marcus Tullius Cicero in an uneasy truce. After a tense standoff, and a war in Cisalpine Gaul after Antony tried to take control of the province from Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, he formed an alliance with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, Caesar's principal colleagues. The three formed a junta called the Second Triumvirate, an explicit grant of special powers lasting five years and supported by law, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate of Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus.[3]
The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which 300 senators and 2,000 equites were deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives, going beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins, and probably motivated by a need to raise money to pay their troops.[4]
Antony and Octavian then marched against Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius, who had fled to the east. After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide (42 BC). After the battle, a new arrangement was made between the members of the Second Triumvirate: while Octavian returned to Rome, Antony went to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, Caesarion. Lepidus, went on to govern Hispania and province of Africa.
Octavian, governing in Italy, busied himself taking lands from Italians and giving them to the triumvirate veteran soldiers. This caused political and social unrest, but when Octavian asked for a divorce from Clodia Pulchra, Fulvia, Antony's wife, decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius, Mark Antony's brother, she raised eight legions in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. The army occupied Rome for a short time, but eventually retreated to Perusia (modern Perugia). Octavian besieged Fulvia and Lucius Antonius in the winter of 41 - 40 BC, starving them into surrender. Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon, where she died of a sudden illness, while Antony was en route to meet her.
While in Egypt, Antony had been conducting an affair with Cleopatra that resulted in the birth of three children, Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene, and Ptolemy Philadelphus. Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra, and Fulvia's death allowed for the two triumvirs to affect a reconciliation. Octavian gave his sister, Octavia, in marriage to Antony in 40 BC. During their marriage Octavia gave birth to two daughters, both named Antonia. In 37 BC Antony deserted Octavia and went back to Egypt to be with Cleopatra. The Roman dominions were then divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East.
Whilst Antony occupied himself with military campaigns in the East and a romantic affair with Cleopatra; Octavian built a network of allies in Rome, consolidated his power, and spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because of his preoccupation with Egyptian affairs and traditions. The situation grew more and more tense, and finally, in 32 BC, the senate officially declared war on "the Foreign Queen", to avoid the stigma of yet another civil war. It was quickly decided: in the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece, after Antony's men began deserting, the fleets met in a great battle in which many ships burned and thousands on both sides lost their lives. Octavian defeated his rivals who then fled to Egypt. He pursued them, and after another defeat, Antony committed suicide. Cleopatra also committed suicide after her upcoming role in Octavian's Triumph was "carefully explained to her", and Caesarion was "butchered without compunction". Octavian supposedly said "two Caesars are one too many" as he ordered Caesarion's death.[5] This demonstrates a key difference between Julius Caesar and Octavian--while Caesar had demonstrated clemency in his victories, Octavian most certainly did not.
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