Yale Romanization
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- For other uses of Yale, see Yale (disambiguation).
The Yale romanizations are four systems created during World War II for use by United States military personnel. They romanized the four East Asian languages of Mandarin, Cantonese, Korean, and Japanese. The four Romanizations, however, are unrelated in the sense that the same letter from one Romanization may not represent the same sound in another.
They were once used in the US for teaching these Asian languages to civilian students, but are now mostly obscure and only sometimes used by academic linguists. Teaching Mandarin, for example, virtually always employs Hanyu Pinyin. McCune-Reischauer, which predates Yale, has dominated the Korean romanization field for several decades and has recently lost ground to the Revised Romanization rather than any Yale-based system.
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[edit] Mandarin
Mandarin Yale was developed to prepare American soldiers to communicate with their Chinese allies on the battlefield. Rather than try to teach recruits to interpret the standard romanization of the time, the Wade-Giles system, a new system was invented that utilized the decoding skills that recruits would already know from having learned to read English. It avoided the main problems that the Wade-Giles system presented to the uninitiated student or news announcer trying to get somebody's name right in a public forum, because it did not use the "rough breathing mark" (which looks like an apostrophe) to distinguish between sounds like jee and chee. In Wade-Giles the first of those would be written chi and the second would be written ch'i. In the Yale romanization they would be written ji and chi. The Yale system also avoids the difficulties faced by the beginner trying to read pinyin romanization because it uses certain Roman letters and combinations of letters in such a way that they no longer carry their expected values. For instance, q in pinyin is pronounced something like the ch in chicken and is written as ch in Yale Romanization. Xi in pinyin is pronounced something like the sh in sheep, but in Yale it is written as syi. Zhi in pinyin sounds something like the jer in jerbil, and is written as jr in Yale romanization. In Wade-Giles, "knowledge" (知识) is chih-shih, in pinyin, zhishi, but in Yale romanization it is written jr-shr. Only the latter will elicit a near-correct pronunciation from an unprepared English speaker.
For example, if an American soldier, reading Wade-Giles, asked, "Where is the Japanese man's machine gun?" he might utter something like "Jippen jenty cheekwan chong tsai nay pien?" A Chinese soldier with a little English might strain something like this out of the question: "Jipping Jenny! Habitually chooses which cheat?!?" Reciting something from a sheet of emergency sentences written in Yale romanization he would say, "R ben ren de jigwan chyang dzai nei byan?" Even if it were not read perfectly, given the social context a speaker of Mandarin probably would get the idea pretty quickly. The pinyin version, "Ribenren de jiguanqiang zai nei bian?" could be intelligible if the soldier could pronounce qiang.
The tone markings from Yale romanization were adopted for pinyin.[citation needed]
[edit] Cantonese
Unlike the Mandarin Yale romanization, Cantonese Yale is still widely used in books and dictionaries for Standard Cantonese, especially for foreign learners. Developed by Parker Po-fei Huang and Gerald P. Kok, it shares some similarities with Hanyu Pinyin in that unvoiced, unaspirated consonants are represented by letters traditionally used in English and most other European languages to represent voiced sounds. For example, [p] is represented as b in Yale, whereas its aspirated counterpart, [pʰ] is represented as p. Because of this and other factors, Yale romanization is usually held to be easy for American English speakers to pronounce without much training. In Hong Kong, more people use Standard Cantonese Pinyin and Jyutping, as these systems are believed to be more localized to Hong Kong people.
[edit] Initials
| b [p] |
p [pʰ] |
m [m] |
f [f] |
| d [t] |
t [tʰ] |
n [n] |
l [l] |
| g [k] |
k [kʰ] |
ng [ŋ] |
h [h] |
| j [ts] |
ch [tsʰ] |
s [s] |
|
| gw [kw] |
kw [kʰw] |
y [j] |
w [w] |
[edit] Finals
| a [ɑː] |
aai [ɑːi] |
aau [ɑːu] |
aam [ɑːm] |
aan [ɑːn] |
aang [ɑːŋ] |
aap [ɑːp] |
aat [ɑːt] |
aak [ɑːk] |
| ai [ɐi] |
au [ɐu] |
am [ɐm] |
an [ɐn] |
ang [ɐŋ] |
ap [ɐp] |
at [ɐt] |
ak [ɐk] |
|
| e [ɛː] |
ei [ei] |
eng [ɛːŋ] |
ek [ɛːk] |
|||||
| i [iː] |
iu [iːu] |
im [iːm] |
in [iːn] |
ing [ɪŋ] |
ip [iːp] |
it [iːt] |
ik [ɪk] |
|
| o [ɔː] |
oi [ɔːi] |
ou [ou] |
on [ɔːn] |
ong [ɔːŋ] |
ot [ɔːt] |
ok [ɔːk] |
||
| u [uː] |
ui [uːi] |
un [uːn] |
ung [ʊŋ] |
ut [uːt] |
uk [ʊk] |
|||
| eu [œː] |
eui [ɵy] |
eun [ɵn] |
eung [œːŋ] |
eut [ɵt] |
euk [œːk] |
|||
| yu [yː] |
yun [yːn] |
yut [yːt] |
||||||
| m [m̩] |
ng [ŋ̩] |
- The finals m and ng can only be used as standalone nasal syllables.
[edit] Tones
There are nine tones in six distinct tone contours in Cantonese. Cantonese Yale represents tones using tone marks and the letter h, as shown in the following table:
| No. | Description | Yale representation | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | high-flat | sī | sīn | sīk |
| 1 | high-falling | sì | sìn | |
| 2 | mid-rising | sí | sín | |
| 3 | mid-flat | si | sin | sik |
| 4 | low-falling | sìh | sìhn | |
| 5 | low-rising | síh | síhn | |
| 6 | low-flat | sih | sihn | sihk |
- Tones can also be written using the tone number instead of the tone mark and h.
- In modern Standard Cantonese, the high-flat and high-falling tones are indistinguishable and, therefore, are represented with the same tone number.
- Three entering tone: entering high-flat, entering mid-flat, entering low-flat have the same tone contours with high-flat, mid-flat, low-flat, but it have difference in coda which affect its short falling cadence only. So we use the same representation between three entering tones and flat tones.
[edit] Examples
| Traditional | Simplified | Romanization using Tone Marks | Romanization using Numbers |
|---|---|---|---|
| 廣州話 | 广州话 | gwóng jāu wá | gwong2 jau1 wa2 |
| 粵語 | 粤语 | yuht yúh | yut6 yu5 |
| 你好 | 你好 | néih hóu | nei5 hou2 |
[edit] Korean
Korean Yale was developed by S. Martin and his colleagues at Yale University about half a decade after McCune-Reischauer, and is still used today, although mainly by linguists, among whom it has become the standard romanization for the language. The Yale system places primary emphasis on showing a word's morphophonemic structure. This distinguishes it from the other two widely used systems for romanizing Korean, the Revised Romanization of Korean (RR) and McCune-Reischauer. These two usually provide the pronunciation for an entire word, but the morphophonemic elements accounting for that pronunciation often can not be recovered from the romanizations, which makes them ill-suited for linguistic use. In terms of morphophonemic content, the Yale system's approach can be compared to North Korea's Chosŏnŏ sin ch'ŏlchabŏp.
The Yale romanization represents each morphophonemic element (which in most cases corresponds to a jamo, a letter of the Korean alphabet) by the same Roman letter, irrelevant of its context, with the notable exceptions of ㅜ (RR u) and ㅡ (RR eu) which the Yale system always romanizes as u after bilabial consonants because there is no audible distinction between the two in many speakers' speech, and of the digraph wu that represents ㅜ (RR u) in all other contexts.
The letter q indicates reinforcement which is not shown in hangul spelling:
- 할 일 halq il /hallil/
- 할 것 halq kes /halkket/
- 글자 kulqca /kulcca/
In cases of letter combinations that would otherwise be ambiguous, a period indicates the orthographic syllable boundary. It is also used for other purposes such as to indicate sound change:
- 늙은 nulk.un “old”
- 같이 kath.i /kachi/ “together”; “like”, “as” etc.
A macron over a vowel letter indicate that in old or dialectal language, this vowel is pronounced long:
- 말 māl “word(s)”
- 말 mal “horse(s)”
Note: Vowel length (or pitch, depending on the dialect) as a distinctive feature seems to have disappeared at least among younger speakers of the Seoul dialect sometime in the late 20th century.
A superscript letter indicates consonants that have disappeared from at a word's South Korean orthography and standard pronunciation. For example, the South Korean orthographic syllable 영 (RR yeong) is romanized as follows:
- yeng where no initial consonant has been dropped.
Example: 영어 (英語) yenge - lyeng where an initial l (ㄹ) has been dropped or changed to n (ㄴ) in the South Korean standard language.
Examples: 영[=령]도 (領導) lyengto; 노[=로]무현 (盧武鉉) lNo Muhyen - nyeng where an initial n (ㄴ) has been dropped in the South Korean standard language.
Example: 영[=녕]변 (寧邊) nYengpyen
The indication of vowel length or pitch and disappeared consonants often make it easier to predict how a word is pronounced in Korean dialects when given its Yale romanization compared to its South Korean hangul spelling.
There are separate rules for Middle Korean. For example, o means ㅗ (RR o) in a romanization of the current language, but ㆍ (arae a) for Middle Korean, where ㅗ is transcribed as wo. Martin 1992 uses italics for romanizations of Middle Korean as well as other texts predating the 1933 abandonment of arae a, whereas current language is shown in boldface.
[edit] References
- Guan, Caihua (2000). English-Cantonese Dictionary. Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-970-6.
- Matthews, Stephen & Yip, Virginia (1994). Cantonese. A Comprehensive Grammar. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-08945-X.
- Martin, Samuel E. (1992). “Yale Romanization.”, A Reference Grammar of Korean, 1st edition, Rutland and Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Publishing, 8 ff. ISBN 0-8048-1887-8.
