Κάρολος Ρώσσελ

Από τη Βικιπαίδεια, την ελεύθερη εγκυκλοπαίδεια

Ο Κάρολος Τέηζ Ρώσσελ, (Charles Taze Russell, ορθότερη προφορά "Ράσελ") (16 Φεβρουαρίου 1852 - 31 Οκτωβρίου 1916), ευρύτερα γνωστός ως Πάστορας Ρώσσελ, ήταν Αμερικανός ευαγγελιστής από το Πίτσμπουργκ της Πενσυλβανίας, ο οποίος δημιούργησε το κίνημα των Σπουδαστών της Γραφής. Έγινε γνωστός για την έκδοση του θρησκευτικού περιοδικού Η Σκοπιά της Σιών και Κήρυκας της του Χριστού Παρουσίας το 1879 καθώς επίσης για την ίδρυση μιας από τις πρώτες Βιβλικές Εταιρίες στις Ηνωμένες Πολιτείες, την Φυλλαδική Εταιρία Σκοπιά της Σιών. Ο διαχωρισμός που συνέβη το 1917 είχε ως αποτέλεσμα τη δημιουργία των σύγχρονων κινημάτων των Μαρτύρων του Ιεχωβά και όσων παρέμειναν προσκολλημένοι στις δογματικές απόψεις του Ρώσσελ, οι οποίοι ονομάζονται γενικά Συσχετιζόμενοι Σπουδαστές της Γραφής.

Πίνακας περιεχομένων 1 Τα πρώτα χρόνια της ζωή του 2 Διακονία 2.1 Ξεκίνημα 2.2 Διαχωρισμός από τον Μπάρμπουρ 2.3 Ο γάμος του 2.4 Κυριότερες εκδόσεις 3 Θάνατος, επακόλουθα γεγονότα και κληρονομία 4 Θεολογία και διδασκαλίες 5 Ρώσσελ και Σιωνισμός 6 Κριτική και διενέξεις 7 Υποσημειώσεις 8 Βιβλιογραφία 9 Εξωτερικές ιστοσελίδες 9.1 Γενικές 9.2 Ειδικές & Βιογραφικές

[Επεξεργασία] Τα πρώτα χρόνια της ζωή του

Ο Ρώσσελ γεννήθηκε στο Αλεγκένυ της Πενσυλβανίας των ΗΠΑ από τον Τζόζεφ Λύτελ Ρώσσελ και την Ελίζα Μπίρνυ. Ήταν δεύτερος ανάμεσα σε πέντε παιδιά, και το ένα από τα δυο που έζησαν ώστε να γίνουν έφηβοι. Τα άλλα αδέλφια του ήταν ο Τόμας (1850– 1855) η Μάργκαρετ ("Μέι", το όνομα μετά το γάμο της έγινε Μάργκαρετ Λαντ) που πέθανε λίγο μετά το 1940, η Λουσίντα (1857–1858), και ο Τζόζεφ Λύτελ Τζούνιορ. (1859-1860). Η μητέρα τους πέθανε το 1861 σε ηλικία 29 ετών. Ο πατέρας τους πέθανε το 1897, σε ηλικία 84 ετών.

The Russells had lived in Philadelphia, as well as Allegheny. Once established in Pittsburgh, the Russells became respected members of the Presbyterian Church. In his early teens, his father made him partner of his Pittsburgh haberdashery store. By age twelve, he was writing business contracts for customers, and given charge of some of his father's other clothing stores. At age thirteen, he left the Presbyterian Church to join the Congregational Church due to a preference in their organizational style. In his earlier youth, Russell would chalk Bible verses on the downtown sidewalks to draw attention to the punishment of hell awaiting the unfaithful. When sixteen, a discussion with a childhood friend on faults perceived in Christianity (such as perceived contradictions in creeds, and medieval traditions) led him to question his faith. He then began to investigate other views and philosophies, including Confucianism, Buddhism, Taoism, and Hinduism, but abandoning them in short order. In 1870, at age eighteen, he cautiously attended a presentation by the famous Adventist preacher, Jonas Wendell. Wendell focused on what Russell considered to be rational, logical matters relating to Biblical prophecy and chronology, drawing attention to the future date of 1874 as the supposed date for Christ's return. The presentation left him with, he later related, a renewed zeal that not only was the Bible the word of God, but that all Christians had a responsibility to preach the gospel.

[Επεξεργασία] Διακονία

[Επεξεργασία] Ξεκίνημα

From 1870 through 1875 the Russell family, and others, participated in an analytical study of both the Bible and the origins of Christian doctrine, creed, and tradition. "Millerite" Adventist ministers George Storrs, and George Stetson, were also closely involved. Russell's group believed they had found significant errors in common Christian belief. As a result of such study, the Russell family believed they had gained a clearer understanding of true Christianity, and were re-baptized in 1874.

In the Spring of 1876, while on business in Philadelphia, Russell found a copy of "Herald of the Morning", published out of Rochester, New York by Nelson H. Barbour. (1824-1908) Russell contacted Barbour to set up a meeting in Philadelphia to compare notes. Barbour introduced him to some new views that convinced Russell, amongst other things, the Rapture would occur in April 1878. Russell was moved to devote his life to what he believed were now the last two years before the return of Christ. He sold his five clothing stores for approximately $300,000 dollars. (the buying power of $5.5 million in the year 2005) Through Russells' encouragement and financial backing, Barbour wrote an outline of their current views, in the book "Three Worlds; or Plan of Redemption" published in 1877. A text Russell had written in 1874, entitled "The Object and Manner of our Lord's Return", was published the same year. Russell's desire to lead a Christian revival was evidenced by his calling two separate meetings of every Christian leader in Pittsburgh. Russell's ideas, and stressing of the Rapture's imminence, was rejected both times.

[Επεξεργασία] Διαχωρισμός από τον Μπάρμπουρ

In April 1878, the Rapture did not occur as Russell, Barbour, and their associates had anticipated. According to the book Faith on the March, page 27, written by one of Russell's former associates, A.H. Macmillan, "While talking with Russell about the events of 1878, I told him that Pittsburgh papers had reported he was on the Sixth Street bridge dressed in a white robe on the night of the Memorial of Christ's death, expecting to be taken to heaven together with many others. I asked him, "Is that correct?" Russell laughed heartily and said: "I was in bed that night between 10:30 and 11:00 P.M. However, some of the more radical ones might have been there, but I was not. Neither did I expect to be taken to heaven at that time, for I felt there was much work to be done preaching the Kingdom message to the peoples of the earth before the church would be taken away.""

Confused by what was perceived to be an error in calculation, Russell re-examined the doctrine to see if he could determine that it had Biblical origins, or if it was, in his view, simply Christian tradition. His conclusion that it is tradition led him to begin teaching, through the pages of the Herald, what he believed to have discovered on the subject. Barbour, however, highly embarrassed by the failure of their expectations, rejected Russell's explanation, and a debate ensued in each monthly issue of the journal from the Spring of 1878 through to the Summer of 1879. In a matter of months Barbour's embarrassment led to a recanting of some of the views he and Russell had previously shared, including any reliance upon prophetic chronology. As their disagreements turned into a debate over Christ's ransom, a split between them resulted. Russell removed his financial support, and started his own journal, entitled "Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence," with the first issue July, 1879, while Barbour formed "The Church of the Strangers" that same year, continuing to publish the "Herald of the Morning."

(See the article Nelson H. Barbour for a more detailed history)

[Επεξεργασία] Ο γάμος του

Στις 13 Μαρτίου 1879 ο Ρώσσελ παντρεύτηκε τη Μαρία Φράνσις Άκλυ(1850-1938) μετά από γνωριμία λίγων μηνών. Παρότι εξέφραζαν στοργή ο ένας για τον άλλο, ο γάμος δεν ήταν βασισμένος στη ρομαντική αγάπη αλλά ήταν ένας συνεταιρισμός βασισμένος στην αγαμία, ώστε να κηρύττουν το Ευαγγέλιο. Το 1897 χώρισαν, μετά από διαφωνίες για το ποιος έπρεπε να είναι ο ρόλος της Άκλυ στη διεύθυνση του περιοδικού Σκοπιά της Σιών. Ο Ρώσσελ παρουσίασε τη δική του εκδοχή για τα γεγονότα στο τεύχος της 15ης Ιουλίου 1906 που μπορείτε να διαβάσετε εδώ. Το 1906 εκείνη ζήτησε διαζύγιο επικαλούμενη διανοητική σκληρότητα, ως άμεσο αποτέλεσμα της γαμήλιας συμφωνίας τους για ισόβια αποχή από σεξουαλικές σχέσεις. Κατά τη διάρκεια της δίκης υπονόησε σεξουαλικές παρεκτροπές του Ρώσσελ με μια στενογράφο της Σκοπιάς, την οποία είχαν ως ψυχοκόρη. Ανέφερε επίσης ότι τον είχε πιάσει στο δωμάτιο της υπηρέτριας. Η εφημερίδα Brooklyn Daily Eagle ισχυρίστηκε ότι είχε τα πρακτικά της δίκης, και δημοσίευσε τμήματα από αυτά, τα οποία μπορείτε να διαβάσετε εδώ. Η Μαρία Ρώσσελ πέθανε στο St. Petersburg της Φλόριντα του Αύγουστο του 1938 από την ασθένεια του Hodgkin.

[Επεξεργασία] Κυριότερες εκδόσεις

In 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was founded for the purpose of disseminating tracts, papers, doctrinal treatises and Bibles. All materials were printed and bound by contract with local printers, then distributed by 'colporteurs'. The Society was officially chartered in 1884. From this point Russell's ministry intensified. His Bible study group had grown to hundreds of local members, with followers throughout New England, the Virginias, Ohio, and elsewhere, who annually elected him "Pastor". Other congregations that eventually formed in other nations also followed this tradition.

Russell devoted nearly a tenth of his fortune, along with contributed funds, in publishing and distributing Food for Thinking Christians in 1881. In the same year followed The Tabernacle and its Teachings, and Tabernacle Shadows of the Better Sacrifices. In 1886, after what was reported to be a financial set-back resulting from the immense outlay on these three titles, he published the long promised The Plan of the Ages (later renamed The Divine Plan of the Ages). In the course of preparation, Russell concluded the book was to be merely the first of a seven-volume series. The remaining volumes, originally called Millennial Dawn, but later renamed Studies in the Scriptures to clarify that they were not novels, were:

• The Time is at Hand (1889)
• Thy Kingdom Come (1891)
• The Day of Vengeance" later retitled "The Battle of Armageddon'' (1897)
• The At-one-ment Between God and Men (1899)
• The New Creation (1904)

The delayed publishing of the seventh volume eventually became a source of great anticipation and mystery among Bible Students. Following Russell's death in 1916, a seventh volume entitled The Finished Mystery, was published in 1917 and advertised as his "posthumous work". True to Russell's plan, this seventh volume was a detailed interpretation of the book of Revelation, but had included interpretations of Ezekiel, and the Song of Solomon. Immediate controversy surrounded both its publishing, and contents. In a short time it was established that it was actually written and compiled by two of Russell's former associates, Clayton J. Woodworth and George H. Fisher, and edited by Joseph Franklin Rutherford.

In 1903, newspapers began publishing his written sermons. These newspaper sermons were syndicated worldwide, eventually reaching an estimated readership of twelve to fifteen million in the United States. Through the syndicated sermons, and advertising efforts made by the newspaper syndicators, Pastor Russell's face became one of the most recognizable images in the world. Russell, however, had many critics, and was labeled a heretic, amongst other things. As he became more prominent the number of critics increased.

Το έτος 1908, τα βιβλία του είχαν επίσημα αναγνωριστεί ως τρίτα στη σειρά των πιο διαδεδομένων κειμένων σε όλη τη γη, τα οποία ξεπερνούνταν μόνο από το Κινεζικό Άλμανακ και την Αγία Γραφή. Καθώς δέχτηκε ιδιαίτερους επαίνους αλλά και έντονη κριτική κατά τη διάρκεια της δημόσιας διακονίας του, τα γραπτά του και οι απόψεις του έχει τεκμηριωθεί ότι άσκησαν επιρροή σε όλες τις σφαίρες του σύγχρονου Προτεσταντικού και του Δυτικού πολιτισμού.

[Επεξεργασία] Θάνατος, επακόλουθα γεγονότα και κληρονομία

During his return from a ministerial tour of the western and southwestern United States, the already ill Pastor Russell died from the result of multiple ailments on the night of October 31 1916 in a train car as it approached Pampa, Texas. His death was a major front-page headline in many newspapers across the globe. He was buried in Rosemont United Cemetery, Pittsburgh. The gravesite is marked by both a headstone, and an eight-foot tall pyramid memorial gifted from friends of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society [1] in 1924.

In January 1917 Joseph Franklin Rutherford was successfully elected second president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society despite a series of disputes over the election process. Further disputes arose over interpretation of sections in Russell's Last Will & Testament dealing with the future contents of Zion's Watch Tower magazine, as well as who, if any, had authority to print new literature. Nearly three-quarters of the congregations chose not to accept Rutherford's increasing number of changes in doctrine, openly published in the pages of the Watchtower magazine, as early as 1918. For many Bible Students, Rutherford's rejection of the Great Pyramid in November, 1928, and Russell's role in restoration of the truth in February, 1927, was considered the last straw. Those remaining supportive, however, eventually adopted the new name Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931, and changed the name of the Society from Watch Tower to Watchtower. As their numbers began to grow, Rutherford sought to change the organizational structure of the Watchtower Society, shifting the long-held independence of the congregations, to a more centralized role, where elders began to be chosen by the Society, instead of by the local congregations. Many of those Bible Students who had ceased association with the changing Watchtower Society attempted to regroup in 1929 with the First Annual Bible Students Convention held in the old Pittsburgh "Bible House" long used by Pastor Russell. These conventions were held yearly, but the process of regathering took nearly twenty years.

(See the article Bible Student movement for a more detailed history)

Several Protestant denominations have either formed around, or adopted some style of, Pastor Russell's views, among them the Worldwide Church of God, the Concordant Publishing Concern, the Assemblies of Yahweh. Among the numerous Bible Student off-shoot groups include the Pastoral Bible Institute, the Layman's Home Missionary Movement and others.

[Επεξεργασία] Θεολογία και διδασκαλίες

Ως αποτέλεσμα της αναλυτικής εξέτασης των Γραφών, ο Ρώσσελ και οι σύντροφοί του κατέληξαν ότι οι διαδεδομένες Χριστιανικές ομολογίες πίστης και οι παραδόσεις περιλάμβαναν επιβλαβή σφάλματα. Επιθυμούσαν να αποκαταστήσουν την αρχική αγνότητα της Χριστιανοσύνης του πρώτου αιώνα. Τέτοιες απόψεις και συμπεράσματα θεωρούνταν ως αιρετικά από πολλούς εκκλησιαστικούς ηγέτες και λόγιους της εποχής τους, αν και έκαναν κάποια από αυτά αποδεκτά μερικές δεκαετίες αργότερα. Ο Πάστορας Ρώσσελ συμφωνούσε με άλλους Προτεστάντες για την πρωταρχική θέση που κατέχει η Αγία Γραφή και τη δικαίωση μόνο μέσω πίστης αλλά πίστευε ότι είχαν υπεισέλθει σφάλματα όσον αφορά την ερμηνευτική τους. Ήταν σύμφωνος με πολλούς Προτεστάντες του 19ου αιώνα, περιλαμβανομένων των Μιλλεριτών, όσον αφορά την ιδέα της Μεγάλης Αποστασίας που ξεκίνησε τον πρώτο αιώνα Κ.Χ. Επίσης, συμφωνούσε με αρκετούς άλλους Προτεστάντες της εποχής του όσον αφορά την πίστη στην επικείμενη Δεύτερη Έλευση του Χριστού και τον Αρμαγεδδώνα. Κάποιες από τις ερμηνείες που διαφοροποιούσαν τον Ρώσσελ και τους συντρόφους του από τις ερμηνείες των Ορθοδόξων, των Ρωμαιοκαθολικών και των περισσότερων Προτεσταντών, περιλάμβαναν τα εξής:

• Ο Ρώσσελ απέρριψε την δοξασία της πύρινης Κόλασης. Διατηρούσε την άποψη ότι θα υπήρχε ουράνια ανάσταση 144.000 δικαίων, καθώς και ενός "πολύ όχλου", αλλά πίστευε ότι η υπόλοιπη ανθρωπότητα κοιμόταν στον θάνατο, αναμένοντας επίγεια ανάσταση.
• Δεν αποδεχόταν το χριστιανικό δόγμα σχετικά με την Τριάδα. Ο Ρώσσελ πίστευε στην θειότητα του Χριστού αλλά διέφερε από την διαδεδομένη άποψη διδάσκοντας ότι ο Χριστός έλαβε την αθανασία ως δώρο από τον Πατέρα, μετά τον μαρτυρικό του θάνατο. Δίδασκε επίσης ότι το άγιο Πνεύμα δεν είναι πρόσωπο αλλά η εκδήλωση της δύναμης του Θεού.
• Ο Ρώσσελ υπολόγισε ότι το έτος 1874 ήταν το έτος της Δεύτερης Έλευσης του Χριστού και μέχρι το θάνατό του διακήρυττε ότι η αόρατη Παρουσία του Χριστού ως Βασιλιά είχε ξεκινήσει από τότε. Είχε προβλέψει ότι η περίοδος των "καιρών των εθνών" θα έληγε το έτος 1914 και ότι τότε θα αναλάμβανε ο Χριστός την εξουσία σε σχέση με τις υποθέσεις της γης. Ερμήνευσε το ξέσπασμα του Πρώτου Παγκοσμίου Πολέμου ως την έναρξη του Αρμαγεδδώνα, τον οποίο θεωρούσε ότι θα περιλάμβανε τόσο τη σταδιακή επιδείνωση των πολιτισμένων κοινωνιών όσο και μια κλιμακούμενη πολυεθνική επίθεση στο αποκαταστημένο Ισραήλ που θα συνοδεύονταν από παγκόσμια αναρχία.
• Απέρριψε το διαδεδομένο σύστημα χρονολόγησης της Αγίας Γραφής όπως είχε δημοσιευτεί από τον Επίσκοπο Άσερ και μέσω άμεσης προσέγγισης και επαγωγικού συλλογισμού υπολόγισε τα 6.000 χρόνια από τη δημιουργία του Αδάμ. Κάνοντας συσχετισμούς με προφητικές ερμηνείες, το έτος 1874 θεωρήθηκε ως έτος προφητικής και χρονολογικής σημασίας και θεωρούνταν ως το σημείο έναρξης της αόρατης επανόδου του Χριστού.
• Ο Ρώσσελ υποστήριξε κάποιους από τους υπολογισμούς του μέσω της πυραμιδολογίας. Ακολουθώντας την άποψη που πρώτοι είχαν διδάξει ο Τζον Τέιλορ και ο Τζόζεφ Σιζ, πίστευε ότι η Μεγάλη Πυραμίδα της Γκίζας χτίστηκε με θεϊκή κατεύθυνση, με σκοπό να γίνει κατανοητή στη σύγχρονη εποχή. Υιοθέτησε και χρησιμοποίησε την σχετική έκφραση «Γραφή εν λίθοις». Βασιζόμενος σε τμήματα της Αγίας Γραφής όπως το Ησαΐας 19:19, 20 και άλλα, οι διάφορες άνοδοι και κάθοδοι της πυραμίδας θεωρούνταν ως αναπαραστάσεις της πτώσης του ανθρώπου στην αμαρτία, της προμήθειας του Μωσαϊκού Νόμου, του θανάτου του Χριστού και της εξύψωσης των αγίων στον ουρανό. Θεωρούσε ότι υποδηλώνονταν διάφορες ημερομηνίες από τη μελέτη αυτού του μνημείου. ^[1] Η εξέταση της πυραμίδας εγκαταλείφθηκε στη συνέχεια από τους Μάρτυρες του Ιεχωβά. ^[2]

[Επεξεργασία] Ρώσσελ και Σιωνισμός

Ο Ρώσσελ ήταν από τους πρώτους Χριστιανούς ιεροκήρυκες που προώθησε αυτό που αργότερα ονομάστηκε Σιωνισμός. Δανειζόμενος ιδέες από τον Νέλσον Μπάρμπουρ δίδαξε το 1879 ότι η χάρη του Θεού επανήλθε στους Ιουδαίους as the result of a prophetic "double" which ended in 1878. (favor from Jacob to Jesus, then disfavor from Jesus to 1878) Το 1910 διοργάνωσε στο Hippodrome Theatre της Νέας Υόρκης ομιλία που παρακολούθησαν χιλιάδες Εβραίοι. Τόσο οι Εβραίοι όσο και οι Χριστιανοί σοκαρίστηκαν από τη διδασκαλία του ότι οι Εβραίοι δεν χρειαζόταν να μεταστραφούν στον Χριστιανισμό. Ο Ρώσσελ πίστευε ότι η Παλαιστίνη ανήκε στην εβραϊκή φυλή, ότι ο Θεός τους καλούσε πίσω στη γη τους, κι ότι θα έπρεπε αυτοί να βρίσκονται στο επίκεντρο της εξουσίας στη γη κατά την βασιλεία του Θεού. Ο Ρώσσελ πίστευε αρχικά ότι οι Εβραίοι θα γύριζαν στην Παλαιστίνη και θα διαμόρφωναν το δικό τους έθνος το 1910, αλλά αυτό δεν έγινε. Λίγο πριν το θάνατό του, χρησιμοποίησε τον εβραϊκό Τύπο για να δηλώσει ότι το 1914 υποδείκνυε προφητικά τον καιρό που όλοι οι Εβραίοι έπρεπε να πάνε στην Παλαιστίνη και να διεκδικήσουν τολμηρά τη χώρα. (Βλ. και Χριστιανικός Σιωνισμός).

[Επεξεργασία] Κριτική και διενέξεις

Από το 1892 οι απόψεις του Ρώσσελ και ο τρόπος που διηύθυνε δέχηκαν έντονη κριτική by certain individuals associated with his ministry. In 1893 a paper was written and circulated to Bible Students in Pittsburgh by associates Otto van Zech, Elmer Bryan, J.B. Adamson, S.G. Rogers, Paul Koetitz, and others. It expressed concern that Russell was a dictatorial leader, a shrewd businessman who appeared eager to collect funds from the selling of the "Millennial Dawn" books, cheated one of them out of financial gains, and issued thousands of Millennial Dawn books under a female pseudonym. A booklet entitled A Conspiracy Exposed and Harvest Siftings was written by Russell and issued as an extra to the April, 1894 Zion's Watch Tower magazine in order to pre-empt attempts to have their views circulated to a wider audience of Bible Students. Russell printed copies of letters he had received from these former associates in order to show that their claims were trumped up, and those involved were guided by Satan in an attempt to subvert his work as a "minister of the gospel".

In 1897 Russell's wife left him after disagreeing over the management of Zion's Watch Tower magazine. She expressed that, as his wife, she should have equal control over its administration, equal privilege in writing articles, preaching, and traveling abroad as his representative. In 1903 she filed for legal separation on the grounds of mental cruelty, related to what she considered to be forced celibacy, and frequent cold, indifferent treatment. The separation was ultimately granted in 1906, with Russell charged to pay alimony. During the trial her attorney made the claim that Russell had been inappropriately intimate with Rose Ball, a young woman the Russells had cared for as a "foster daughter" since age ten. She alleged that Ball had told her Russell claimed to be a "jellyfish floating around" to different women until someone responded to his intimacy. Russell defended himself by claiming that not only was she "poisoned" by the women's suffrage movement, but that all her claims were false. Following her attorney's claim, page 10 of the court transcript records that Mrs. Russell was asked by the Judge to clarify if she was, in fact, accusing her husband of adultery, and replied "No". The Washington Post and Chicago Mission Friend reprinted the claim that Russell was a "jellyfish", and was sued by him for libel. The jury voted in his favor, awarding him one-dollar. After appealing this decision, Russell received a cash settlement of $15,000 (the same buying power as $310,000 in 2005) as well as payment of all court costs, an agreement for an article of retraction defending his character, and an agreement that his weekly syndicated sermons be published in their newspapers.

On March 22, 1911, The Brooklyn Daily Eagle, a tabloid newspaper, began publishing articles accusing Russell of gaining profit from a strain of wheat named "Miracle Wheat" by its discoverer, K.B. Stoner of Fincastle, Virginia in 1903. Once other newspapers read this claim, many critics began to insist that Russell had deceived and defrauded many by selling this supposedly advanced strain of wheat for $60 a bushel, far above the average cost of wheat for the day. Throughout 1912 and 1913 the Eagle continued to report on this alleged fraud on Russell's part. He sued the Eagle for libel, but lost. Russell defended himself publicly, and in writing, by claiming that the wheat was donated to the Watch Tower Society, and although sold for $1 per pound Mr. Stoner routinely sold it for a $1.25 per pound. Russell claimed to have no financial connection to the wheat, and that any who were dissatisfied by their purchase and donation were offered a refund as much as one year following purchase. None claimed a refund.

During 1913, other matters of interest were addressed by John Jacob (J.J.) Ross, a minister from Hamilton, Ontario, Canada in his booklet entitled Some Facts about the Self-Styled "Pastor" Charles T. Russell. Russell had taken Ross to court on the charge of libel. Ross attempted to show that when Russell was asked in trial if he possessed knowledge of the Greek alphabet he first claimed he did, then retracted the claim when cross-examined and shown the alphabet. Ross also claimed that Russell blatantly lied when asked if he was an ordained minister by answering "yes". In answer to Ross's accusations, Russell stated that he never claimed knowledge of the Greek language, merely the alphabet, and that due to the Judge's objection to the line of questioning, the book was taken away before he could even see it. He believed that his ordination was "of God" according to the biblical pattern, not requiring any denominational approval, and that his annual election as "Pastor" by over 1,200 congregations worldwide constituted him as "ordained", or chosen, to be a minister of the gospel.

In recent times, Russell has been accused of being associated with Freemasonry. Attempts have been made to connect him with different rites of the Free Masons without any solid proof. It has been pointed out that in later editions of his Studies in the Scriptures series a winged solar disk appears on the front cover. Some claims have been made that this is an ancient Masonic symbol. In actual fact, Russell used this symbol based upon his belief Christ's Kingdom was beginning to manifest itself, especially from 1914. The symbol was used in reference to a scripture verse found in Malachi 4:2 that refers to the sun with wings, itself based upon ancient observations of the sun rising on the horizon with beams or "wings" on either side. No direct evidence connecting Russell to Freemasonry exists.

[Επεξεργασία] Υποσημειώσεις

[Επεξεργασία] Βιβλιογραφία

• 1975 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses (1974), Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.
• Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose (1959), Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.
• Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993), Watchtower Bible and Tract Society.
• The Golden Age, A Journal of Fact Hope and Courage, Vol. 12, No. 308, pages 655-657, (1931) published by the "Watchtower Bible & Tract Society", Brooklyn NY
• The Golden Age, A Journal of Fact Hope and Courage, Vol. 13, No. 315, pages 21-27, (1931) published by the "Watchtower Bible & Tract Society", Brooklyn, NY
• Faith on the March, A.H.Macmillan, 1957.

[Επεξεργασία] Εξωτερικές ιστοσελίδες

[Επεξεργασία] Γενικές

• Pastor-Russell.com
• CT Russell Database - searchable database of Russell's writings
• Chapter II. Organizational Beginnings: (1873-1912) Charles Taze Russell from Barbara G. Harrison's Visions of Glory: A History and a Memory of Jehovah’s Witnesses, New York, 1978 Simon & Shuster. See also chapters IV and VI.
• Watchtower.org

[Επεξεργασία] Ειδικές & Βιογραφικές

• Message to Herald of the Morning subscribers 1879 Pittsburgh, Pa; Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, July 1, 1879, Supplement

• International Bible Students Souvenir Convention Report for 1907, "Praise and Testimony Meeting"; Chicago, 1908

• Great Battle in the Ecclesiastical Heavens Joseph Franklin Rutherford, 1915

• Harvest Gatherings and Siftings Zion's Watch Tower, June 1, 1916 page 170

• St. Paul Enterprise Nov 7, 14, 21 and 28, 1916 articles "Regarding the Death and Burial of, and Memorial Services for, Pastor Russell"

• Biography of Charles Taze Russell from Zion's Watch Tower obituary issue, December 1 1916

• Pastor Russell's Last Will & Testament

• International Bible Students Souvenir Convention Report for 1916, "Pastor Russell Passes Through the Gates of Glory"; Chicago, 1917

• The Messenger of Laodicea Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society, 1919

• Laodicean Messenger 1923 Chicago: The Bible Students Book Store; Memoirs of the Life of Charles Taze Russell

• Where Else But Pittsburgh! George Swetnam, Davis & Warde, Inc., 1958

• Works of Charles Taze Russell and their effect upon Religion in America 1974 Bob Chastain, Master's Thesis

• The Bible Student Movement in the Days of C.T. Russell; by James Parkinson, 1975

• North Side: People: Charles Taze Russell - information page at the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh’s website.