Satanic Verses
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- For the novel by Salman Rushdie, see The Satanic Verses (novel).
Satanic Verses is an expression coined by the historian Sir William Muir in reference to several verses allegedly interpolated into an early version of the Qur'ān and later expunged. The story of these verses can be read in (among other places) al-Wāqidī and al-Tabarī's recension of Ibn Ishaq's biography of Muhammad, the Sīrat Rasul Allah, believed to date 120-130 years after the death of Muhammad. The authenticity of the Satanic verses has been disputed by the earliest Muslim historians.[1]
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[edit] Basic Narrative
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For the complete story see Complete Account (Tabarī)
In its basic form the story reports that Muhammad longed to convert the people of Mecca (who were, after all, his kinsmen and neighbors) to Islam. As he was reciting Sūra Al-Najm (Q.53), as revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, Satan tempted him to utter the following lines after verses 19 and 20 ("Have you thought of Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other"):
- These are the exalted Gharaniq, whose intercession is hoped for. (In Arabic تلك الغرانيق العلى وإن شفاعتهن لترتجى.)
Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt were three goddesses worshiped by the Meccans. Gharaniq is a hapax legomenon, a word found only in this one place. Commentators say that it means Numidian cranes, which fly at a great height. The subtext to this allegation is that Muhammad was backing away from his otherwise uncompromising monotheism by saying that these goddesses were real and their intercession effective.
The Meccans were overjoyed to hear this and ceased persecuting Muhammad and his flock, to the extent of even joining the Muslims in ritual prostration (sujūd) at the end of the Sūra. The Muslim refugees who had already fled to Abyssinia (Ar. Habasha, الحبشة) heard of this and started to return home. The angel Gabriel then comes to Muhammad and chastises him for adulterating the divine scripture, at which point God reveals Q.22:52 to comfort the prophet, reminding him he is no different from those prophets who came before him who were also tempted by Satan. Yet God promises to ensure the integrity of His revelation by abrogating what the Devil casts in, which He does by revealing the actual versions of verses Q.53:21-26, in which the goddesses are belittled. Muhammed takes back his words and the persecution by the Meccans resumed.
[edit] Views
[edit] Traditional Islamic
The tradition of the Satanic Verses never made it into any of the musannaf hadīth compilations, let alone the 6 "canonical" Sunni ones (though see below for truncated versions of the incident). Yet the incident appears in early histories (al-Tabāri's Ta'rīkh as well as al-Tabarānī's [d. 971] al-Mu'jam al-kabīr), and was even more prevalent in exegesis, particularly with regard to verse Q.22:52 . In addition to appearing in Tabarī's Tafsīr, it is used in the Tafsīr's of Muqātil, 'Abd al-Razzāq, and Ibn Kathir, as well as the naskh work of Nahhās, the asbāb collection of Wāhidī, and even the late-medieval al-Suyūtī's compilation al-Durr al-Manthūr fī'l-Tafsīr bi'l-Mathūr.
By the time of Qurtubī (d. 1272), a series of ever more elaborate exculpations had accrued to the basic narrative. These variously claimed that:
- Muhammad uttered the satanic verses unawares
- Satan deceived Muhammad into reciting the verses by delivering them in the guise of the angel Gabriel
- Satan, while invisible, projected his voice so that the verses seemed to emanate from Muhammad
- Some enemy of Muhammad (either satanic or human) recited the verses in Muhammad's voice to discredit him
Qurtubī (al-Jāmi' li ahkām al-Qur'ān) dismisses all these variants in favor of the explanation that once Sūra al-Najm was safely revealed the basic events of the incident (or rumors of them) "were now permitted to occur to identify those of his followers who would accept Muhammad's explanation of the blasphemous imposture" (JSS 15, pp. 254-255).
Ibn Kathir in his commentary points out the weakness of the various isnāds by which the story was transmitted, almost all of them mursal- i.e. without a companion of Muhammad in their chain. [2]
[edit] Modern Islamic
Almost all modern Muslim scholars have rejected the story as historically improbable (it would have taken too long for news to travel to Abyssinia and for the refugees to return). They also point out the weakness of the various isnāds by which the story was transmitted, almost all of them mursal- i.e. without a companion of Muhammad in their chain. See al-Albānī's Nasb al-majānīq li-nasfi qissat al-gharānīq (The Erection of Catapults for the Destruction of the Story of the Gharānīq)(Arabic: نصب المجانيق لنسف قصة الغرانيق ) (Damascus, 1953) for a recent example of such scholarship.
Claims that this story must have been a fabrication by the Meccans and other enemies of Muhammad, and that Ibn Ishaq, al-Tabarī, and al-Wāqidī only reported what they heard from others is belied, however, by the frequent reliance on this tradition within Islamic exegesis.
Others argue that even if the story is to be accepted as authentic, the theological problems posed by it are illusory; the concept of ismah (Prophetic infallibility) does not imply that Muhammad could never make a mistake, only that no mistake made by Muhammad would be left uncorrected by God. Other Muslims reject this excuse because it allows for an element of time between when the Prophet utters a false utterance, and when God corrects it.
A number of Muslim scholars, notably Fazlur Rahman, have argued that if we are to trust Ibn Ishaq on other matters, we must trust him on this one.
Other scholars have pointed to linguistic weaknesses and contradictions within the “sura” if the alleged verses were there. For example, the context of the “sura” and especially the verses surrounding the alleged verses is that of a ridicule and mockery of the Meccans’ gods and habits. Thus, glorifying their gods in the same “sura” where they are being ridiculed would represent a contradiction. Another example is the word “أفرأيتم” (Have ye seen?) which is an interrogative used in the Quran to disdain or undervalue the subject of the interrogation. Therefore using the same word to praise the deities of the Meccans doesn’t conform to the rules of the language and the habit of the Quran. Some of the places where this word was used are; 26:75, 39:38, 19:77, 45:23, 53:33.
This entire matter was a mere footnote to the back-and-forth of religious debate, and was rekindled only when Salman Rushdie's 1989 novel, The Satanic Verses, made headline news. Even though Rushdie's novel does not deal with the issue of the Satanic Verses per se, it does contain some fictionalized allusions to Islamic history. Muslims around the world protested against the book, and Iran's Ayatollah Khomeini issued a fatwa sentencing Rushdie to death, saying that the book blasphemed Muhammad and his wives.
[edit] Academic
Since Muir the historicity of this episode (whether as an actual discrete event, or as a dramatization of a longer process of accommodation and then confrontation with Meccan polytheism) has been largely accepted by Western scholars of Islam. Watt and Guillaume argued for its authenticity based upon the implausibility of Muslims fabricating a story so unflattering to their prophet:
- Muhammad must have publicly recited the satanic verses as part of the Qur'ān; it is unthinkable that the story could have been invented by Muslims, or foisted upon them by non-Muslims.
- Watt, Muhammad at Mecca
Caetani, though, rejected the tradition because of its weak isnāds. And Burton, in an inverted culmination of Watt's approach, argued for its fictitiousness based upon a demonstration of its actual utility to certain elements of the Muslim community- namely, those legal exegetes seeking an "occasion of revelation" for eradicatory modes of abrogation:
- Far, however, from being unthinkable, it has now become possible both to establish that the story is indeed the invention of Muslims and to identify the motive that compelled them to invent it (p. 249)...
- The exegetes have long given rein to a strong predilection for reference to concrete historical occasions to facilitate the interpretation of the Qur'ān's frequently oblique utterances, and in this instance, the suggestions that Satan is supposed to have "cast into the longing" of Muhammad are the so-called "satanic verses"...
- It was solely in order to justify these interpretations of what this verse [Q.22:52] was thought to state that Tabarī introduced the infamous hadīths alleging Muhammad's incredible compact with the Meccans (p. 253)...
- The hadīths associated with the latter verse were mere inventions introduced to maintain the argument that naskh means to remove with specific reference to the wording of the verse. This provided Qur'ānic evidence for the formula naskh al-hukm wa-al-tilāwa in conditions in which n.s.kh. had already become a technical term in the vocabulary of the Usūlīs with, however, generally the meaning "to replace" (p. 263)...
- Burton, Journal of Semitic Studies (JSS) 15
Since Wansbrough's contributions to the field in the early '70's, though, scholars have become much more attentive to the emergent nature of early Islam, and less willing to accept back-projected claims of continuity:
- To those who see the tradition as constantly evolving and supplying answers to question that it itself has raised, the argument that there would be no reason to develop and transmit material which seems derogatory of the Prophet or of Islam is too simple. For one thing, ideas about what is derogatory may change over time. We know that the doctrine of the Prophet's infallibility and impeccability (the doctrine regarding his 'isma) emerged only slowly. For another, material which we now find in the biography of the Prophet originated in various circumstances to meet various needs and one has to understand why material exists before one can make a judgment about its basis in fact...
- G. R. Hawting, The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History, pp. 134-135
In Rubin's recent contribution to the debate, questions of historicity are completely eschewed in favor of an examination of internal textual dynamics and what they reveal about early medieval Islam. Rubin locates the genesis of many prophetic traditions in the early Muslim desire to prove to other Scriptuaries "that Muhammad did indeed belong to the same exclusive predestined chain of prophets in whom the Jews and the Christians believed. In order to do so, the Muslims had to establish the story of Muhammad's life on the same literary patterns as were used in the vitae of the other prophets" (Eye of the Beholder, p. 21). The incident of the satanic verses, according to him, conforms to the common theme of persecution followed by isolation of the prophet-figure.
As the story was adapted to include Qur'ānic material (Q.22:50, Q.53, Q.17:73-74) the idea of satanic temptation was added, heightening its inherent drama as well as incorporating additional biblical motifs (c.f. the Temptation of Christ). Rubin is outstanding in his attention to the narratological exigencies (i.e. "What makes for a more compelling story?") which may have shaped early sīra material as opposed to the more commonly considered ones of dogma, sect, or political/dynastic faction. Given the consensus that "the most archaic layer of the biography, [is] that of the stories of the kussās [i.e. popular story-tellers]" (Sīra, EI²), this may prove a fruitful line of inquiry.
Rubin's extensive examination of early sīra material severely compromises Burton's argument that the incident was fabricated solely to support certain lines of exegesis, since several non-Qur'ānic (and hence exegetically useless) versions of the tale exist. This does not affect the possibility, though, that the "final" version of the story was indeed the result of such elaboration:
- Although there could be some historical basis for the story, in its present form it is certainly a later, exegetical fabrication. Sūra LIII, 1-20 and the end of the sūra are not a unity, as is claimed by the story; XXII, 52, is later than LIII, 21-7, and is almost certainly Medinan (see Bell, Trans., 316, 322); and several details of the story- the mosque, the sajda, and others not mentioned in the short summary above- do not belong to a Meccan setting.
- Kur'ān, Encyclopaedia of Islam (EI)²
[edit] Related Traditions
Several related traditions exist, some adapted to Qur'ānic material, some not. One version, appearing in Tabarī's Tafsīr (Vol. IX) and attributed to 'Urwa ibn al-Zubayr (d. 713), preserves the basic narrative but with no mention of satanic temptation. Muhammad is persecuted by the Meccans after attacking their idols, during which time a group of Muslims seeks refuge in Abyssinia. After the cessation of this first round of persecution (fitna) they return home, but soon a second round begins. No compelling reason is provided for the caesura of persecution, though, unlike in the incident of the satanic verses, where it is the (temporary) fruit of Muhammad's accommodation to Meccan polytheism. Another version attributed to 'Urwa has only one round of fitna, which begins after Muhammad has converted the entire(!) population of Mecca, so that the Muslims are too numerous to perform ritual prostration (sūjud) all together. This somewhat parallels the Muslims and mushrikūn prostrating themselves together after Muhammad's first, allegedly satanically infected, recitation of Sūra al-Najm, in which the efficacy of the three pagan goddesses is acknowledged (Rubin, pp. 157-158).
The image of Muslims and pagans prostrating themselves together in prayer in turn links the story of the satanic verses to very abbreviated sūjud al-Qur'ān (i.e. prostration when reciting the Qur'ān) traditions found in the authoritative mussanaf hadīth collections, including the Sunni canonical ones of Bukhāri and Tirmidhī. Apparently "the allusion to the participation of the mushrikūn emphasises how overwhelming and intense the effect of this sūra was on those attending. The traditions actually state that all cognizant creatures took part in it, humans as well as jinns (jinn)" (Rubin, p. 165).
Yet this is inherently illogical without the allegedly satanic verses in the recitation, given that in the real version of verses Q.53:19-23, the pagans' goddesses are attacked. The majority of traditions relating to prostration at the end of Sūra al-Najm solve this by either removing all mention of the mushrikūn, or else transforming the pathetic attempt of one aged Meccan to participate (who, too feeble to lay down, must instead put dirt to his forehead) into an act of mockery. Some traditions even describe his eventual comeuppance, saying he is later killed at the battle of Badr [1] . Thus "the story of the single polytheist who raised a handful of dirt to his forehead ... [in] ... attempt of an old disabled man to participate in Muhammad's sūjud... in ... a sarcastic act of an enemy of Muhammad wishing to dishonor the Islamic prayer". And "traditions which originally related the dramatic story of temptation became a sterilized anecdote providing prophetic precedent for a ritual practice" (Rubin, p. 166).
[edit] Complete Account (Tabarī)
An extensive account of the fabricated report of the incident is found in al-Tabāri's history, the Ta'rīkh (Vol. I) - which is not certified by isnad as authentic - as the musnad hadiths, the only reliable source of information on the Prophet, are:
- The prophet was eager for the welfare of his people, desiring to win them to him by any means he could. It has been reported that he longed for a way to win them, and part of what he did to that end is what Ibn Humayd told me, from Salama, from Muhammad ibn Ishaq, from Yazīd ibn Ziyād al-Madanī, from Muhammad ibn Ka'b al-Qurazī:
- When the prophet saw his people turning away from him, and was tormented by their distancing themselves from what he had brought to them from God, he longed in himself for something to come to him from God which would draw him close to them. With his love for his people and his eagerness for them, it would gladden him if some of the hard things he had found in dealing with them could be alleviated. He pondered this in himself, longed for it, and desired it.
- Then God sent down the revelation. 'By the star when it sets! Your companion has not erred or gone astray, and does not speak from mere fancy...' [Q.53:1] When he reached God's words, 'Have you seen Allāt and al-'Uzzā and Manāt, the third, the other?' [Q.53:19-20] Satan cast upon his tongue, because of what he had pondered in himself and longed to bring to his people, 'These are the high-flying cranes and their intercession is to be hoped for.'
- When Quraysh heard that, they rejoiced. What he had said about their gods pleased and delighted them, and they gave ear to him. The Believers trusted in their prophet with respect to what he brought them from their Lord: they did not suspect any slip, delusion or error. When he came to the prostration [sujūd] and finished the chapter, he prostrated and the Muslims followed their prophet in it, having faith in what he brought them and obeying his command. Those mushrikūn of Quraysh and others who were in the mosque also prostrated on account of what they had heard him say about their gods. In the whole mosque there was no believer or kāfir who did not prostrate. Only al-Walīd bin al-Mughīra, who was an aged shaykh and could not make prostration, scooped up in his hand some of the soil from the valley of Mecca [and pressed it to his forehead]. Then everybody dispersed from the mosque.
- Quraysh went out and were delighted by what they had heard of the way in which he spoke of their gods. They were saying, 'Muhammad has referred to our gods most favourably. In what he has recited he said that they are "high-flying cranes who intercession is to be hoped for".'
- Those followers of the Prophet who had emigrated to the land of Abyssinia heard about the affair of the prostration, and it was reported to them that Quraysh had accepted Islam. Some men among them decided to return while others remained behind.
- Gabriel came to the Prophet and said, 'O Muhammad, what have you done! You have recited to the people something which I have not brought you from God, and you have spoken what He did not say to you.'
- At that the Prophet was mightily saddened and greatly feared God. But God, of His mercy, sent him a revelation, comforting him and diminishing the magnitude of what had happened. God told him that there had never been a previous prophet or apostle who had longed just as Muhammad had longed, and desired just as Muhammad had desired, but that Satan had cast into his longing just as he had cast onto the tongue of Muhammad. But God abrogates what Satan has cast, and puts His verses in proper order. That is, 'you are just like other prophets and apostles.'
- And God revealed: 'We never sent any apostle or prophet before you but that, when he longed, Satan cast into his longing. But God abrogates what Satan casts in, and then God puts His verses in proper order, for God is all-knowing and wise.' [Q.22:52]
- So God drove out the sadness from His prophet and gave him security against what he feared. He abrogated what Satan had cast upon his tongue in referring to their gods: 'They are the high-flying cranes whose intercession is accepted [ sic ]'. [replacing those words with] the words of God when Allāt, al-'Uzzā and Manāt the third, the other are mentioned: 'Should you have males and He females [as offspring]! That, indeed, would be an unfair division. They are only names which you and your fathers have given them'... as far as 'As many as are the angels in heaven, their intercession shall be of no avail unless after God has permitted it to whom He pleases and accepts' [Q.53:21-26]- meaning, how can the intercession of their gods be of any avail with Him?
- When there had come from God the words which abrogated what Satan had cast on to the tongue of His prophet, Quraysh said, 'Muhammad has gone back on what he said about the status of our gods relative to God, changed it and brought something else', for the two phrases which Satan had cast on to the tongue of the Prophet had found a place in the mouth of every polytheist. They, therefore, increased in their evil and in their oppression of everyone among them who had accepted Islam and followed the Prophet.
- The band of the Prophet's followers who had left the land of Abyssinia on account of the report that the people of Mecca had accepted Islam when they prostrated together with the Prophet drew near. But when they approached Mecca they heard that the talk about the acceptance of Islam by the people of Mecca was wrong. Therefore, they only entered Mecca in secret or after having obtained a promise of protection.
- Among those of them who came to Mecca at that time and remained there until emigrating to Medina and taking part in the battle of Badr alongside Muhammad there was, from the family of 'Abd Shams b. Abd Manāf b. Qussayy, 'Uthmān b. 'Affān together with his wife Ruqayya the daughter of the Prophet. Abū Hudhayfa b. 'Utba with his wife Shal bint Suhayl, and another group with them, numbering together 33 men.
- translated in G. R. Hawting, The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History, pp. 131-132
[edit] See also
[edit] References
- Fazlur Rahman (1994). Major Themes in the Qur'an. Biblioteca Islamica. ISBN 0-88297-051-8.
- John Burton (1970). "Those Are the High-Flying Cranes". Journal of Semitic Studies 15: 246-264.
- Uri Rubin (1995). The Eye of the Beholder: The Life of Muhammad as Viewed by the Early Muslims: A Textual Analysis. The Darwin Press, Inc.. ISBN 0-87850-110-X.
- G. R. Hawting (1999). The Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-65165-4.
- Nāsir al-Dīn al-Albānī (1952). Nasb al-majānīq li-nasfi qissat al-gharānīq (The Erection of Catapults for the Destruction of the Story of the Gharānīq).
[edit] External links
Islamic commentators:
- Muhammad: The man and the message
- [http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Polemics/sverses.html Those are the High Flying Claims
