Japanese embassy hostage crisis
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The Japanese embassy hostage crisis began on December 17, 1996 in Lima, Peru, when 14 members of the Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA) took hostage hundreds of high-level diplomats, government and military officials and business executives who were attending a party at the official residence of Japan's ambassador to Peru, Morihisha Aoki in celebration of Emperor Akihito's 63rd birthday.[1] After being held hostage for 126 days, the dignitaries were freed in a daring raid by Peruvian Armed Forces commandos, during which one hostage, two commandos, and all the MRTA militants died.
The operation was seen as very successful by Peruvian society, and world-wide media. President Alberto Fujimori received most of the credit, and so strengthened his hard-line position by raiding the complex instead of permitting negotiations of any kind with the militants.
In recent years, reports emerged suggesting that a number of the Emerretistas had been executed after surrendering during the ambush. These findings prompted civil suits against military commanders by relatives of the dead militants. As of 2005, the Attorney General's office in Peru allowed the charges and hearings have been ordered.
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[edit] Staging
In the years following the capture in 1992 of Shining Path leader Abimael Guzmán and the rest of the group's leadership, insurgent activity declined in Peru; the country appeared to have finally put behind it the violence that had plagued it for some 15 years.
When news spread of the MRTA's daring assault on the ambassador's residence, the country emitted a collective groan. The Lima Stock Exchange was forced to close three hours early because domestic stocks plummeted. The feeling of the Peruvian population in general could be summarized in a major Peruvian newspaper editorial comment: "It is a setback of at least four years. We've returned to being a country subject to terror."
The news came during a period of low popularity for president Fujimori (down to 40% from a 1996 high of 75%), who had until then been given credit for restoring peace to the country after terrorist activity largely ceased through the country during his first presidential term.[2]
The surprise ambush and seizure of the Japanese ambassador's residency was the most high-profile ever operation of the MRTA in its 15-year history. The ambush propelled Peru in general, and the MRTA in particular, into the world spotlight for the duration of the crisis.
The militants had been able to infiltrate the complex unnoticed, both inside an ambulance, and another group acting as catering staff for the celebration. The complex was guarded by more than 300 heavily armed police officers and bodyguards surrounding the residence.
The militants were armed with AKM rifles, Uzi sub-machine guns, rocket-propelled grenades, Browning automatic rifles, revolvers, hand grenades, explosives, anti-gas masks and other military gear.[3]
[edit] Demands
In the days immediately following the takeover, the Red Cross acted as an intermediary between the government and the insurgents. Among the hostages were high officials of Peru's security forces, including Máximo Rivera, the chief of Peru's anti-terrorist police, DINCOTE, and former chief Carlos Domínguez.
Other hostages included Alejandro Toledo, later president of Peru, and Javier Diez Canseco, a Peruvian congressman. The 24 Japanese hostages included president Fujimori's younger brother. The leader of the MRTA insurgents was identified as 43-year-old Néstor Cerpa.
The insurgents made a series of demands:
- The release of some 400 of their members from prisons around Peru (including recently convicted U.S. activist Lori Berenson).
- A revision of the government's neoliberal free-market reforms.
- They singled out Japan's foreign assistance program in Peru for criticism, arguing that this aid benefited only a narrow segment of society. [4]
- They also protested against what it claimed were cruel and inhuman conditions in Peru's jails.
Javier Diez Canseco was among the 38 men who were released shortly after the hostages were taken. He defended the MRTA and called for the government to negotiate a settlement. Diez Canseco said that the hostage-takers are "18 to 20 years old, maybe 21 ... They're a group of special forces, commandos. I think they're young men who want to live. They don't want to die".[2]
[edit] Negotiations
The Japanese ambassador's residence had been converted into a fortress by the Japanese government. A copy of Tara, Scarlet O'Hara's home in the film Gone with the Wind, it was surrounded by a 12-foot wall, and had grates on all windows, bullet-proof glass in many windows, and doors built to withstand the impact of a grenade. It was, therefore, an easy site to defend from the inside.
Upon being freed, Alejandro Toledo said that what the MRTA really wanted was an amnesty that would allow its members to participate in public life. He said that any attempt to rescue the hostages by force would be "insane", as they were "armed to the teeth". Rooms in the building, he said, were wired with explosives, as well as the roof. He added that the terrorists had anti-tank weapons and wore backpacks that were filled with explosives that could be detonated by pulling a cord on their chest.[2]
[edit] The Government Reaction
On 22 December Fujimori made his first public announcement on the hostage-taking. In a televised four-minute speech he condemned the assailants, calling the MRTA assault "repugnant" and rejecting the terrorists' demands on their totality. He did not rule out an armed rescue attempt, but said that he was willing to explore a peaceful solution to the situation.
President Fujimori also publicly indicated that he did not need help from foreign security advisors, following speculation circulated that Peru was turning to foreign governments for assistance.
Fujimori made his speech shortly after MRTA leader Néstor Cerpa announced that he would gradually release any hostages who were not connected to the Peruvian government.[2] During the months that followed, the rebels released all female hostages and all but 72 of the men.
[edit] The Negotiations
In search for a peaceful solution, Fujimori appointed a team to hold talks with the MRTA, including the Canadian ambassador, who had briefly been a hostage, Archbishop Juan Luis Cipriani, and a Red Cross official. Fujimori even talked with Fidel Castro, raising media speculation that a deal was being worked out to let the MRTA militants go to Cuba as political exiles. However, it was reported on 17 January that negotiations with the MRTA had stalled.
In early February, a new squad of Peruvian troops with heavy equipment took over the embassy vigil. They played loud military music and made provocative gestures to the rebels, who unleashed a burst of gunfire. This prompted Japan's prime minister, Ryutaro Hashimoto, to publicly urge Peru to refrain from taking any unnecessary risks that could endanger the hostages' lives. Japanese leaders pressured Fujimori to reach some sort of negotiated settlement with the Tupac Amaru rebels in order to ensure the hostages' safe release.
Fujimori subsequently met Hashimoto in Canada. The two leaders announced that they were in agreement on how to handle the hostage situation but provided few details. [5]
On 10 February Fujimori travelled to London, where he announced that the purpose of his trip was to "find a country that would give asylum to the MRTA group". Observers noted that his request that the MRTA group be given political asylum contradicted his previously-stated position that the MRTA were not guerrillas but terrorists.
On the eve of his arrival, an article on The Times referred to him as a "dictator" and berated "his barbaric and mediaeval dungeons".
On 11 February, Fujimori declared that "Peruvian prisons are built in accordance with international standards for terrorists." He also attended business meetings, which he described to his domestic audience as an "exercise in reassuring the international investors."[6]
[edit] The Military Solution
In February, Peruvian newspaper La República reported the existence of a secret government "intervention plan", involving the direct participation of U.S. military forces. The plan was reportedly devised by Peru's Army Intelligence Agency and submitted to Fujimori.
On 17 February the New York Times wrote, "United States participation in the assault is crucial, according to the plan, which said that the commandos would come from the Peruvian Army's School of Commandos and the United States Southern Command, based in Panama."[7]
The MRTA called off the talks with the government in March when they reported hearing loud noises coming from beneath the floor of the residence. Peruvian newspapers confirmed the MRTA suspicions, reporting that the police were digging tunnels underneath the building.
The police tried to cover up noise from the digging by playing loud music over loudspeakers and carrying out noisy tank maneuvers through the nearby streets. [8]
According to the New York Times, the Canadian ambassador himself admitted that Fujimori's negotiating team "had served as little more than a cover to give [Fujimori] time to put in place the physical and political elements of a raid." [8] It appeared that it was Fujimori's plan for a military assault, not MRTA's "unwillingness to negotiate", that led to the breakdown of talks.
[edit] Operation Chavín de Huantar
[edit] Preparations
In preparation for the raid, one of the hostages, Admiral Luis Gianpetri of the Peruvian Navy, who was an expert in intelligence and command operations, was provided with a tiny radio set and given encrypted instructions ordering him to warn the hostages ten minutes before the military operation began, telling them to stay as far as possible away from the MRTA members.
Light-colored clothes were systematically ferried in to the hostages, so that they could be distinguished easily from the dark-clad insurgents. Cerpa himself unwittingly helped with this part of the project when, hearing sounds that made him suspect that a tunnel was being dug, he ordered all the hostages placed on the second floor.
In addition, sophisticated miniature microphones and video cameras had been smuggled into the residence, concealed in books, water bottles, and table games. Gianpetri and other military officers among the hostages were given the responsibility for placing these devices in secure locations around the house.
Eavesdropping on the MRTA commandos with the help of these high-tech devices, military planners observed that the insurgents had organized their security carefully, and were particularly alert during the night hours.
Early every afternoon, eight of the MRTA members, including the four leaders, played indoor football for about one hour.
[edit] Raid
On 22 April 1997 a team of 140 commandos, given the name Chavín de Huantar (in reference to a Peruvian archeological site famous for its underground passageways), mounted a dramatic raid on the residence. At 15:23 that afternoon, operation Chavín de Huántar began.
Three charges exploded nearly simultaneously in three different rooms on the first floor. The first explosion hit in the middle of the room were the football game was being held, killing three insurgents immediately — two of the men involved in the game, and one of the women watching from the sidelines. Through the hole created by that blast and the other two explosions 30 commandos stormed into the building, chasing the surviving MRTA members in order to stop them before they reached the second floor.
Two other moves were made simultaneously with the explosion. In the first, 20 commandos launched a direct assault on the front door in order to join their comrades inside the waiting room, where the main staircase to the second floor was located. On their way in, they found the two other female MRTA insurgents guarding the front door. Behind the first wave of commandos storming the door came another group of soldiers carrying ladders, which they placed against the rear walls of the building.
In the final prong of the coordinated attack, another group of commandos emerged from two tunnels that had reached the back yard of the residence. These soldiers quickly scaled the ladders that had been placed for them. Their tasks were to blow out a grenade-proof door on the second floor, through which the hostages would be evacuated, and to make two holes in the roof so that they could kill the MRTA members upstairs before they had time to kill the hostages.
At the end, fourteen MRTA insurgents, one hostage—Dr. Carlos Giusti Acuña, member of the Supreme Court—and two soldiers—Lieutenant Colonel Juan Valer Sandoval and Lieutenant Raúl Jiménez Chávez—died in the assault.
[edit] Fujimori's role on the raid
As the commandos tore the Tupac Amaru rebel flag from the roof of the embassy, Fujimori joined some of the former hostages in singing the national anthem.[9] Shortly thereafter President Fujimori was seen speeding through Lima in a bus packed with freed hostages.[10]
Peruvian TV also showed Fujimori striding among the dead insurgents. Some of the bodies were mutilated, with arms and legs chopped off.[11] The outcome was seen as a triumph and bolstered his hard-line stance against unpopular and leftist groups. His popularity ratings quickly doubled, to nearly 70%, and he was acclaimed a national hero.[12] "You had to live in the climate of the time. The operation was so successful that there was no opposition. Peruvians loved it", said historian Luis Jochamowitz, author of a biography of Fujimori.
Reflecting on the raid a few days afterward, Antonio Cisneros, a leading poet, said it had given Peruvians "a little bit of dignity. Nobody expected this efficiency, this speed. In military terms it was a First World job, not Third World." [12]
Fujimori also took personal credit for the operation. In an interview with the 17 December 1997 edition of El Comercio, Fujimori stated that shortly after the embassy residence was seized, he, the National Intelligence Service headed by Julio Salazar and Vladimiro Montesinos, and the Joint Command of the Armed Forces under Army Commander General Nicolás de Bari Hermoza Ríos had planned the operation.[13]
Fujimori later demonstrated to the media the model of the residence that had been used to prepare the rescue operation, which included the tunnels from adjacent houses used by commandos to enter the building. [14]
[edit] International involvement
Reports emerged that the US and Israel had helped the Peruvian military in preparing for the raid. US State Department spokesperson Nicolas Burns maintained that the U.S. government had no direct participation in the assault.
But former FBI agent Bob Taubert told CNN News on 23 April that Peruvian troops had undergone training the previous December at an undisclosed location in the United States. Commenting that the Peruvian commandos performed precisely as he had trained them for such an action, Taubert said he was "very proud."[11]
The CIA made no comment when asked if it had given intelligence assistance to the Peruvian military in preparation for the raid, but observers pointed out that the CIA and other US intelligence agencies were deeply involved in the counterinsurgency operations of the Peruvian military and that the CIA had a direct hand in the massive search by the Peruvian secret police that led to the 1992 capture of Abimael Guzmán.[8]
[edit] MRTA Corpses illegally detained
When the operation was over, the bodies of the Emerretistas were removed by military prosecutors; representatives from the Attorney General's Office were not permitted entry.
The corpses were not taken to the Institute of Forensic Medicine for the autopsy required by law. Rather, the bodies were taken to the morgue at the Police Hospital. It was there that the autopsies were performed. The autopsy reports were kept secret until 2001. Next of kin of the deceased were not allowed to be present for the identification of the bodies and the autopsies.
The bodies were buried in secrecy in cemeteries throughout Lima.
Eligia Rodríguez Bustamante, the mother of one of the victims, and the Deputy Director of APRODEH asked the Attorney General's Office to take the necessary steps to identify those who died when the residence was retaken, but the Attorney General's Office conceded its jurisdiction over identification of the deceased members of the MRTA to the military justice system.[13]
[edit] International reaction
In general, the military operation was viewed with positive eyes by the Peruvian society and other international governments. However, there were some exceptions:
- On 25 April there were protests at the Peruvian Embassy in Santiago, Chile. Riot police tear gassed demonstrators and pushed them to the ground outside the embassy. Some protesters told television reporters, "We absolutely reject these acts of such cruelty, which should never happen again."
- On the same date, the Chilean Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared: "The Chilean Government has manifested its satisfaction with the outcome of this crisis. It is true that we must regret the death of several human lives, but is also important to acknowledge that there was no other possible outcome."[15]
- In Mexico City on 23 April, scores of people gathered at the Peruvian Embassy to protest. Demonstrators hurled red paint and tomatoes at the building, shouting "Fujimori murderer" and "Latin America is in mourning."
- In Chicago on 27 April, the Editor of the ENN Daily Intelligence Report stated: "To suggest, after the fact, that the use of extreme violence in the retaking of Ambassador Yukihiko Ikeda's residence was inappropriate, is simply naive, wrongheaded, and misinformed. It would appear to be the product of a disgruntled left-wing attempt to try to gain some sort of belated propaganda victory and establish the dead MRTA as "martyrs in a larger revolutionary struggle."[16]
- On 28 April, an article in The New York Times commented on the regime's dependency on the military, describing Fujimori, Montesinos and armed forces head Gen. Nicolás Hermoza Ríos as "Peru's ruling troika".[17]
- Several Andean Presidents (Andrés Pastrana of Colombia, Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada of Bolivia and Rafael Caldera of Venezuela) supported Alberto Fujimori's decisions.[18] This was made a public declaration of the IX Andean Presidential Council.
[edit] Interviews in support of the MRTA
In an interview in the 24 April edition of the German newspaper Junge Welt, MRTA spokesperson Norma Velasco assessed the developments leading up to the raid, saying that "The goal of the MRTA unit was not to murder the embassy prisoners" but, rather, to achieve their demand to free the 450 MRTA prisoners held in Peru's prisons. Saying that "we had no illusions" that Fujimori wanted a peaceful solution, Velasco added, "we did have some bit of hope that international public opinion in many countries would increase pressure on the Peruvian government and force them to give in." Alluding to the underlying economic conditions of the country, she observed "A vast segment of the population still suffers from poverty, hunger and a lack of proper medical care, and these problems are increasing. The end of the crisis at the ambassador's residence showed that Fujimori exclusively relies on military means."
Despite the secrecy, people discovered where MRTA leader Néstor Cerpa's body was buried, and his grave in a hillside cemetery in the impoverished pueblo joven of Villa María del Triunfo subsequently became a rallying point. A woman by Cerpa's grave told a New York Times reporter "He fought for us, for the poor. Look at how we live. Look at how we die." Another said: "He was not a terrorist. He was a revolutionary" [19]
[edit] Aftermath
Doubts about the official version of events soon began to arise, however. Some aspects of what happened during the rescue operation remained secret until the fall of the Fujimori regime. Rumors began to circulate not long after the rescue operation that surrendered MRTA members had been executed extrajudicially:
- One Japanese hostage, Hidetaka Ogura, former first secretary of the Japanese Embassy, who published a book in 2000 on the ordeal, stated that he saw one rebel, Eduardo Cruz (aka "Tito"), tied up in the garden shortly after the commandos stormed the building. Cruz was handed over alive to Colonel Jesús Zamudio Aliaga, but along with the others he was later reported as having died during the assault.
- Former agriculture minister Rodolfo Muñante, declared in an interview eight hours after being freed that he heard one rebel shout "I surrender" prior to taking off his grenade-laden vest and turning himself over. Later, however, Muñante denied having said this[20]
- Another hostage, Máximo Rivera, then head of Peru's anti-terrorism police, said recently he had heard similar accounts from other hostages after the raid.[12]
- On 18 December 2000 El Comercio published a story in which the hostage Hidetaka Ogura again stated that he and other hostages saw three of the MRTA rebels captured alive, one of which whom was "Tito".
Media reports also discussed a possible breach of international practices on taking of prisoners, committed on what was, under rules of diplomatic extraterritoriality, sovereign Japanese soil, and speculated that if charged, Fujimori could face prosecution in Japan.[21]
[edit] Legal proceedings
On 2 January 2001 the Peruvian human-rights organization APRODEH filed a criminal complaint on behalf of MRTA family members against Alberto Fujimori, Vladimiro Montesinos, Nicolás De Bari Hermoza Ríos, Julio Salazar Monroe and anyone found to be guilty of the crime of the qualified homicide of Eduardo Nicolás Cruz Sánchez and two other MRTA members.
Special Provincial Prosecutor Richard Saavedra was put in charge of the preliminary inquiry into the complaint. Non-commissioned National Police officers Raúl Robles Reynoso and Marcial Teodorico Torres Arteaga corroborated Hidetaka Ogura's testimony, telling investigators that they took Eduardo Cruz Sánchez alive as he was attempting to get away by mingling with the hostages when they were at the house in back of the residence.
In an inteview in March, assistant state attorney Ronald Gamarra told CPN radio that Fujimori should face murder charges over the alleged executions: "(We have) information regarding how post-mortems were conducted on the dead MRTA rebels, which in opinion could corroborate accusations of extrajudicial killings." He said unofficial post-mortems plus reports by the United Nations, the US State Department and rights groups, suggested rebels had been executed with a shot in the head. The state prosecutors ordered the exhumation of the insurgents' bodies.[21]
Others, however, have stated that the investigation is just another attempt by Fujimori's political enemies to destroy his legacy. "Not giving in to terrorist blackmail is the only good thing remaining from the previous government" said Carlos Blanco, an independent congressman and one of the hostages. "And now they want to destroy that like everything else."[12]
[edit] Investigation
The bodies of the deceased MRTAs were exhumed and examined by forensic physicians and forensic anthropologists, experts from the Institute of Forensic Medicine, the Criminology Division of the National Police, and the Peruvian Forensic Anthropology Team, some of whom have served as experts for the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia. Statements were taken from various officers who took part in the rescue operation and from some of the rescued hostages.
The examination done by the forensic anthropologists and forensic physicians revealed that Cruz Sánchez had been shot once in the back of the neck while in a defenseless posture vis-à-vis his assailant.[13]
Other forensic examinations established that it appears that eight of the insurgents were shot in the back of the neck after capture or while defenseless because of injuries.
[edit] Prosecution against the Commandos
On 13 May 2002 judge Cecilia Polack Boluarte issued warrants for the arrest of 11 senior army officers who participated in the raid. The warrants allowed the accused to be held for 15 days before formal charges were filed.
The judge's decision provoked an outcry; the ministers of defense, justice and the interior all criticized the arrest orders. However, Attorney General Nelly Calderón supported the measure. In a statement made on 20 May 2002 to Radio Programas del Perú (RPP) she said: "We prosecutors are supporting the action taken by prosecutor Saavedra, because he has done a careful investigation (and) unfortunately the evidence suggests culpability. That evidence has to be collated to determine what degree of responsibility each arrested officer bears."
[edit] Amnesty
On 16 May, two amnesty proposals were announced in congressional committees, one submitted by the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance party (APRA) of former president Alan García, the other by the National Unity party (UN).
The UN bill "granted amnesty" to army General José Williams Zapata, who headed up the operation, and to the "official personnel who participated in the freeing and rescue of the hostages."
Human rights organizations such as Human Rights Watch strongly protested the move. "The successful rescue of the hostages turned these commandos into national heroes, but the evidence of illegal killings is compelling. National gratitude is no reason for shielding them from justice" the organization argued in a press release.
HRW argued that the amnesty proposals clearly conflicted with the principles enunciated by the Inter-American Court of Human Rights in its March 2001 ruling against the Peruvian government in the case of the 1991 Barrios Altos massacre.
In that case, which involved the amnesty law passed in 1995 by the Fujimori government, the Court declared the amnesty null and void because it conflicted with Peru's human rights treaty obligations. It later interpreted that ruling as applicable to all similar cases.[22]
[edit] The Military and the Judicial System
On 7 June, at a ceremony organized by the army to commemorate loyalty to the National Flag, the commandos were honored and decorated, including those whom the judicial branch had under investigation for alleged involvement in the extrajudicial executions.
On 29 July 2002 the Chavín de Huántar commando squad was selected to lead the independence day military parade. This appeared to have been done to exert more pressure on the Supreme Court justices who had to decide the jurisdiction question raised by the military court, in order to make certain that it would be the military court that investigated the extrajudicial executions.[23]
On 16 August 2002 the Supreme Court convened to hear the oral arguments of the parties to the jurisdictional challenge brought by the military tribunal. The military prosecutor heading up the parallel inquiry being conducted in the military court, who had to bring the charges and prove them, was the person arguing the military's challenge. However, in his arguments he made a defense for the commandos, stating that "heroes must not be treated like villains."
The Supreme Court subsequently ruled that the military court system had jurisdiction over the 19 commandos, thus declining jurisdiction in favor of the military tribunal. It held that the events had occurred in a district that at the time was under a state of emergency, and were part of a military operation conducted on orders from above.
It further held that any crimes that the 19 commandos may have committed were the jurisdiction of the military courts. It also ruled that the civilian criminal courts should retain jurisdiction over anyone other than the commandos who may have violated civilian laws.
[edit] The Inter-American Commission
On 3 February 2003 APRODEH, on behalf of MRTA family members, filed a petition with the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights against the Peruvian state, alleging that Peru violated certain rights recognized in the American Convention on Human Rights to the detriment of MRTA member Eduardo Nicolás Cruz Sánchez, David Peceros Pedraza and Herma Luz Meléndez Cueva, by detaining them and then summarily executing them.
The Commission determined the petition was admissible.
[edit] Chronology
December 17 1996: MRTA members take the Japanese ambassador’s residence in Peru with more than 600 hostages. They shortly release about half of the hostages.
December 20 (day 3): Another 38 hostages are released.
December 21 (day 4): Fujimori declares that there will be no talks.
December 22 (day 5): 255 hostages are released.
December 26 (day 9): An explosion is heard in the residence. Police say that an animal detonated a mine.
December 28 (day11): 20 hostages released
December 31 (day14): A group of reporters are allowed into the mansion.
January 21 (day 35): Police and MRTA members exchange shots.
March 2 (day 75): MRTA members refuse asylum to Cuba and Dominican Republic
April 22 (day 126): Peruvian Special Forces storm the residence. One hostage, two commandos and all 14 MRTA members die.
[edit] Notes
- ^ The crisis took place at the ambassador's residence and not the embassy, but the media and others customarily referred to as the "Japanese embassy" hostage crisis.
- ^ a b c d Steve Macko, Day 3 of the Peru Hostage Crisis, EmergencyNet News Servic (ENN), December 19, 1996. Accessed 23 February 2006.
- ^ Andrew Reding, Peru's Fujimori -- A Latin American Pinochet with an Asian Face, Pacific News Service / Jinn Magazine, January 30, 1997. Accessed 23 February 2006.
- ^ Christopher B. Johnstone, Hostage Crisis Brings Attention to Japan's Economic Presence in Peru, originally at http://www.jei.org/Archive/JEIR97/9701w4.html in Japan Economic Institute Weekly Review, No. 1 — January 10, 1997. Archived on Internet Archive, retrieved Mar 27, 2005.
- ^ Jon Miller, Peruvian Hostage Crisis, February 7, 1997. Online forum from PBS NewsHour. Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ Adolfo Olaechea, Imperial Surrealism, Maoist Sojourner, February 10, 1997. Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ Cited in Peru's Embassy Massacre, Revolutionary Worker #905, May 4, 1997. Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ a b c Peru's Embassy Massacre, Revolutionary Worker #905, May 4, 1997.
- ^ 1997: Troops storm embassy in Peru, BBC "On this day: 22 April". Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ Jude Webber, Fujimori murder charges. Datelined "LIMA, Peru, March 9 (Reuters)", no year specified. Reproduced on what appears to be at least a semi-official MRTA site. Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ a b John Catalinotto, After the Bloodbath, the Truth is Revealed. Workers World, 8 May 1997. Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ a b c d Peru Ex - Leader's Popularity Falls, The Associated Press April 2, 2001. Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ a b c Eduardo Nicolas Cruz Sanchez et. Al., Report Nº 13/04, Peru Petition 136/03 Admissibility, Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, February 27, 2004. Accessed 24 Feb 2006.
- ^ Peruvian President shows model of Japanese residence, BBC, 11 December 1997. Accessed 24 Feb 2006.
- ^ Roberto Candia, Reacciones de apoyo en Chile, Diario Electrónico de Copesa. Undated. Accessed 5 March 2006.
- ^ [Steve Macko, Fujimori-Cerpa, a test of wills, ENN Daily Intelligence Report, April 22, 1997, Vol. 3, No. 112. Accessed 5 March 2006.
- ^ Clifford Krauss, "Rescue's Architect: Fujimori's Shadowy Alter Ego; An intelligence chief goes from political peril to 'man of the hour.'", New York Times April 28, 1997. p. A6.
- ^ Reuters story, Presidentes andinos apoyan a Perú, undated. Accessed 5 March 2006.
- ^ Cited in John Catalinotto, After the Bloodbath, the Truth is Revealed. Workers World, 8 May 1997. Accessed 23 Feb 2006.
- ^ Nuevos testimonios confirman que "Tito" estaba vivo ("New testimonies confirm that 'Tito' was alive"), Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos, Peru, 19 May 2002. Accessed 25 Feb 2006.
- ^ a b Peru state attorney seeks Fujimori murder charges, CNN, March 9, 2001. Accessed 25 Feb 2006.
- ^ Peru: Amnesty for Embassy Siege Killings Unacceptable, Asociación Pro Derechos Humanos, Peru, 17 May 2002. Accessed 25 Feb 2006.
- ^ World Report 2003, Peru, Human Rights Watch. Accessed 25 Feb 2006.
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- Petition for admissibility: Eduardo Nicolás Cruz Sánchez et al. (IACHR, 27 February 2004; retrieved 9 March 2005.)
- Troops storm embassy in Peru (BBC, 22 April 1997; retrieved 9 March 2005.)
- "Peru's Fujimori: A Latin American Pinochet with an Asian Face (Pacifica News, 30 January 1997; retrieved 9 March 2005.)
- The Spiritual Dimension of the Hostage Drama (Catholic.net; retrieved 9 March 2005.)
- "Fuerzas especiales liberan a los rehenes de Lima" (in Spanish)
- "Rescate el Lima" (in Spanish)
