Islam and other religions
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Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers, Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many attitudes towards other religions, ranging from intolerant to tolerant attitudes. Attitudes have varied according to time, place and circumstance.
Inclusive Muslims focus on the similarities between people of faith in general and Islam, Christianity, and Judaism in particular, stressing the universality of Islam and seeing other religions as reflections of the same higher truth (albeit less perfect versions) [1]. Many Muslims conclude that the other faiths must be tolerated and that Islam states this.
Other Muslim groups take an exclusivistic approach. For example, they aggressively stress the differences between Islam and the Judeo-Christian community. This can lead to parts of the Muslim community holding beliefs like the necessity of bringing unbelievers back to the "Straight Path" by persuasion, or even force -- and then acting on such beliefs.
Both camps cite parts of Islam's highest canons, the Qur'an and the Sunnah, to justify their positions.
The Qur'an teaches that God Allah in Arabic has sent prophets to other peoples, revealing the true religion of Islam. Those peoples have rejected or perverted Islam. Muhammad, the last prophet the seal of the prophets, has called them to return to the true faith. Those who reject his message, when the truth of the message has reached them, are promised to be doomed to a fiery hell on the Day of Judgement Quran 29:68
The Qur'an distinguishes between the monotheistic People of the Book (Jews, Christians and Sabians), and polytheists or idolaters on the other hand. The People of the Book should be tolerated, even if they hold to their faiths; however, idolaters are not given that same degree of tolerance. There are certain kind of restrictions that are relaxed for Muslims, when involved with People of the Book, which do not apply to idolaters, such as Muslim males being allowed to marry a chaste woman from the People of the Book (Qur'an, 5:5), or Muslims being allowed to eat meat from the People of the Book [2].
According to the Qur'an, Moses and Jesus preached the pure Islamic doctrine. Jews and Christians then strayed from strict monotheism. The followers of Moses earned God's anger by worshipping the Golden Calf. The followers of Jesus went astray by worshiping Jesus as God and belief of the doctrine Trinity.
- O People of the Book, commit no excesses in your religion; nor say of Allah anything but the truth. The Messiah Jesus son of Mary was (no more than) a Messenger of Allah, and His Word, which He bestowed on Mary, and a Spirit proceeding from Him; so believe in Allah and His Messengers. Say not "Trinity": desist! It will be better for you: for Allah is One: Glory be to Him! (far exalted is He) above having a son. To Him belong all things in the heavens and on earth. And enough is Allah as a Disposer of affairs.
(al-Qur'an 4:171)
Muslims believe that due to human interference, some parts of the Jewish and the Christian scriptures are corrupted. The Quran calls itself Muhimin which means "quality controller". It claims that it upholds that which is truth in the Bible and rejects what is falsehood. Muslims believe that Qur'an and Bible have the same source and that any differences from absolute similarities would either mean replacement of a new Law with the previous ones or correction of the message that got corrupted.
- And We have sent down to you (O Muhammad) the Book (this Qur'an) in truth, confirming the Scripture that came before it and Mohaymin (trustworthy in highness and a witness) over it (old Scriptures). So judge among them by what Allah has revealed. [Surah 5:48]
- None of Our revelations do We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, but We substitute something better or similar... (Surah 2:106)
Islamic scholars generally divide the sections and verses of the Qur'an into two groups: the verses revealed in Mecca, and the verses revealed in Medina. The Meccan verses generally preach peace and accommodation, leaving it to God and the Day of Judgment to separate the believers from the unbelievers.
- We believe in Allah, and in what has been revealed to us and what was revealed to Abraham, Isma'il, Isaac, Jacob, and the Tribes, and in (the Books) given to Moses, Jesus, and the prophets, from their Lord: We make no distinction between one and another among them, and to Allah do we bow our will (in Islam). (Surat Al Imran; 3:84).
- Those with Faith, those who are Jews, and the Christians and Sabaeans, all who have Faith in Allah and the Last Day and act rightly, will have their reward with their Lord. They will feel no fear and will know no sorrow. (Surat al-Baqara; 2:62).
- Only argue with the People of the Book in the kindest way - except in the case of those of them who do wrong - saying, 'We have Faith in what has been sent down to us and what was sent down to you. Our God and your God are one and we submit to Him. (Surat al-`Ankabut; 29:46).
The Qur'anic verses are interpreted in the context of the situation in the life of the Prophet. Hence, the Medinite verses focused, among other themes, on the topic of self-defense. These verses take place after Muhammad and his follows had taken refuge in Medina and taken up the sword against the Meccans who had taken the lives of many of the Prophet's companions and also purportedly injured the Prophet on a number of occasions. The verses instruct fighting against the unbelieving oppressors, and promise paradise to the faithful who fall in holy war, or jihad. It is important to note that the Qur'an directs Muslims to fight against militant aggressors in a formal war, which is a holy pursuit (hence 'Holy War') and with interpretation these verses cannot be used during peace or against civilians, the elderly, women or children, or to harm livestock, farms or trees. Muslims may not declare war, but they must defend their lives and property.
Critics such as Robert Spencer believe though Islam does not explicitly preach armed jihad, moderate Muslims' denial that the violence practiced by extremist Muslims can be read in the Qur'an cannot be upheld. He believes that preaching violence is implicit in the Qur'anic text.
The Qur'anic verses specifically direct:
- Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loves not transgressors. (2:190)
- And why should you not fight in the cause of God and of those who, being weak, are ill-treated (and oppressed)? Men, women, and children, whose cry is: "Our Lord! Rescue us from this town, whose people are oppressors; and raise for us from Your side one who will protect; and raise for us from Your side one who will help! (4:75)
- Therefore, when ye meet the Unbelievers (in fight), smite at their necks; At length, when ye have thoroughly subdued them, bind a bond firmly (on them): thereafter (is the time for) either generosity or ransom: Until the war lays down its burdens. Thus (are ye commanded): but if it had been God's Will, He could certainly have exacted retribution from them (Himself); but (He lets you fight) in order to test you, some with others. But those who are slain in the Way of God,- He will never let their deeds be lost. (47:4)
- And an announcement from Allah and His Messenger, to the people (assembled) on the day of the Great Pilgrimage...But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the pagans wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war) but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practice regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful. And if one of the idolaters seek protection from you, grant him protection till he hears the word of Allah, then make him attain his place of safety; this is because they are a people who do not know.
thy Lord inspired the angels (with the message): "I am with you: give firmness to the Believers: I will instill terror into the hearts of the Unbelievers: smite ye above their necks and smite all their finger-tips off them." This because they contended against Allah and
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[edit] Practice of the early Muslims
During the ten years that Muhammad led his followers against the Meccans and then against the other Arab tribes, Christian and Jewish communities who had submitted to Muslim rule were allowed to worship in their own way and follow their own family law, and were given a fair degree of self-government. However, the Arabs who followed their traditional polytheistic religion (i.e, the non-Jews and non-Christians) were only given freedom for a specified term of four months, under a general treaty, after which they were given either the choice of conversion, exile or execution,[3] according to some claims. According to these claims, they converted en masse. Others claim that the polytheists were not forced to convert, or forced to exile. They use examples such as this verse from the Quran, to substantiate their claim:
- And if anyone of the Mushrikûn (polytheists, idolaters, pagans, disbelievers in the Oneness of Allâh) seeks your protection then grant him protection, so that he may hear the Word of Allâh (the Qur'ân), and then escort him to where he can be secure, that is because they are men who know not. (Quran 9:6)
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Islamic empire grew rapidly, encompassing what is now the Middle East, Egypt, North Africa, and Iran. Most of the new subjects were Christian or Jewish, and considered People of the Book. (After some argument, the Zoroastrians were considered People of the Book as well[4]). Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians were called dhimmi, protected peoples. As noted above, they could worship, follow their own family law, and own property. People of the Book were not subject to certain Islamic rules, such as the prohibitions on alcohol and pork, but were subject to other restrictions. Under the Islamic state, they were exempt from military service, but were required to pay a poll tax known as jizya. (They were, however, exempt from the zakat required of Muslims). They could be bureaucrats and advisors, but they could never be rulers.
They were not subject to forced conversion. In fact, under the first caliphs and the Ummayad dynasty, conversion was discouraged. Arab troops were settled in garrison towns like Kufa and Basra, in part to keep them separate from the conquered peoples. If a dhimmi wanted to convert, he/she could only do so by convincing an Arab to act as a sponsor or patron, adopting the dhimmi in the patron's tribe and making him/her an honorary Arab. There are claims that there were several instances in which entire communities wanted to convert, and were prevented; and that they were more useful as taxpayers.[5]
The Syriac Patriarch Ishôyahb III wrote in his correspondence to Simeon of Rewardashir, "As for the Arabs, to whom God has at this time given rule (shultãnâ) over the world, you know well how they act toward us. Not only do they not oppose Christianity, but they praise our faith, honour the priests and saints of our Lord, and give aid to the churches and monasteries."[1]
[edit] Later Islamic practice
Under the Ummayads and Abbasids, the Islamic community was increasingly fragmented into various sects and kingdoms, each of which had its own evolving policy towards dhimmi and towards conquered polytheists.
[edit] The Islamic heartland
In general, the policies of the territories comprising the earliest Islamic conquests grew gradually harsher towards the dhimmis. Conversion to Islam was made easier (all one had to do was to recite the confession of faith). Many dhimmis did convert as a result of fear and pressure. Areas that were majority Christian or Zoroastrian before the Arab conquest at some point became overwhelmingly Muslim. As dhimmis became minorities, they sometimes became persecuted minorities. At some point (it is not clear when), non-Muslims were forbidden to visit the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, while some hadith even urged their exclusion from the entire Arabian peninsula.
[edit] Later Islamic conquests
With the Ghaznavids and later the Mughals, Islam also expanded further into northern India. Will Durant, in The Story of Civilization, described this as "probably the bloodiest story in history". This approach was not uniform, and different rulers adopted different strategies. The Mughal emperor Akbar, for example, was relatively tolerant towards Hindus, while his successor Aurangzeb was intolerant. Hindus were ultimately given the tolerated religious minority status of dhimmi, even though they were obviously not as purely monotheist as the Jews and Christians who had previously received this status. However, the underlying complexity of Hindu philosophy was useful in this regard, as it had always posited an underlying unity of all things, including the fusion of various deities into a single reality (Brahman).
The Buddhists of India were not as fortunate; although Buddhism had been in decline prior to the Muslim invasions, the destruction of monastic universities in the invasions such as Nalanda and Vikramashila were a calamity from which it never recovered. According to one Buddhist scholar, the monasteries were destroyed because they were large, fortified edifices considered threats by Muslim Turk invaders, not because they were non-Muslim institutions. [6]
The Almohad rulers of Muslim Spain were initially intolerant, and engaged in forced conversions [citation needed]; Maimonides, for example, was forced to masquerade as a Muslim and eventually flee Spain after the initial Almohad conquest.
However, it is worth mentioning that most Muslims rulers in Spain could be considered tolerant with some exceptions. Christians were free to practice their own beliefs, and had kept their own churches. The tolerant atmosphere in Muslim Spain made it a refuge for Jews persecuted in other European lands.
[edit] Areas of peaceful expansion
Sometime in the ninth and tenth centuries, an Islamic mystical movement called Sufism took concrete shape. (Note that this is controversial; Sufis insist that they are only continuing a tradition that started with Muhammad. However, organized Sufi movements seem to become evident at that time.)
Sufis stressed the importance of learning from living teachers renowned for their piety and spiritual wisdom, and were organized into Sufi orders, lineages of teachers traced back to a revered founder.
Sufis generally believed in spreading Islam by preaching and example rather than by conquest. Sufis took Islam to many areas that had never experienced an Islamic conquest, areas like sub-Saharan Africa and Indonesia. They were also influential in the conversion of much of the Indian province of Bengal, the eastern half of which is now the nation of Bangladesh. Islamic cultures in such areas were usually tolerant and syncretistic, preserving beliefs and practices from the pre-Islamic past.
[edit] Contemporary Islam
During the 19th and early 20th centuries, most Islamic states fell under the sway of European colonialists. The colonialists enforced tolerance, especially of European Christian missionaries. After World War II, there was a general retreat from colonialism, and predominantly Muslim countries were again able to set their own policies regarding non-Muslims. This period also saw the beginning of increased migration from Muslim countries into the First World countries of Europe, the UK, Canada, the US, etc. This has completely reshaped relations between Islam and other religions.
[edit] Predominantly Muslim countries
Many predominantly Muslim countries allow the practice of all religions. Of these, some (such as Egypt) limit this freedom with bans on proselytising or conversion, or restrictions on the building of places of worship; others (such as Mali) have no such restrictions. In practice, the situation of non-Muslim minorities depends not only on the law, but on local practice, which may ameliorate somewhat harsh laws or make their situations hard despite liberal laws.
Some countries are predominantly Muslim and allow freedom of religion adhering to democratic principles. Of particular note are the following countries:[7]
- Indonesia, Bangladesh, Malaysia have a significant population from the Hindu, Christian and Buddhist faith. They are allowed to practice their faith, build places of worship and even have missionary schools and organizations but with limitation of such practice. Some Muslim countries nationally observe Hindu, Christian and Buddhist holidays, e.g. Durga Puja, Maghi Purnima, Buddha Purnima, Ashari Purnima, Moharram, Christmas etc.
- In Syria, there exists about 1.8 million (10%) Christians of about 15 different religious and ethnic sects, as well as few thousands of Jews, they have relatively better economical situation than Muslims, and they have many hundreds of independent privately owned churches and some 15 synagogues. The freedom of religion is well observed by the state law as well as the historical long record of tolerance since the Ummayde caliph days. Counterside of many Christian countries that have both Catholic and Orthothox minorities, in Syria, Christmas and Easter days are official holydays for both the Catholic or Orthothox calendar.
Some predominantly Muslim countries are more intolerant of non-Muslims. There have been many explanations for this rising distrust, too many to detail here. We note only that:
- Pakistan has different electorates for Muslims and non-Muslims, and limits the public positions a non-Muslim can hold.
- Saudi Arabia limits religious freedom to a high degree, prohibiting public worship by other religions.
- The now-overthrown Taliban regime in Afghanistan was considered intolerant by many observers. Some ancient Buddhist monuments, like the Buddhas of Bamyan, were destroyed as idolatrous.
- The Islamist government of Iran formally tolerates Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians - although all three groups are subjected to some severe discrimination in practice - while the situation of Bahá'ís, considered by the government as a pro-Zionist, un-Islamic heresy, is far worse. See Persecution of Bahá'ís.
- In Sudan, there was extensive use of the rhetoric of religious war by both parties in the decades-long battle between the Muslim North and the largely non-Muslim South (see Second Sudanese Civil War.)
According to Islamic law, jizya (poll tax) is to be paid by all non-Muslims, excluding the weak and the poor, living in a Muslim state, to the general welfare of the state. Also, in his book "Al-Kharaj," Abu Yusuf says, "No Jizya is due on females or young infants." In exchange for the tax, the non-Muslims are required to be given security, provided compensation from the Muslim Exchequer when they are in need, treated on equality with Muslims, and enjoy rights as nationals of the state. Al-Balathiri comments on this saying, "Khaled Ibn Al-Walid, on entering Damascus as a conqueror, offered a guarantee of security to its people and their properties and churches, and promised that the wall of the city would not be pulled down, and none of their houses be demolished. It was a guarantee of God, he said, and of the Caliph and all believers to keep them safe and secure on condition they paid the dues of the Jizya."[8] This poll tax is similar to the alms tax (Zakah) that is to be paid by the Muslim citizens of the state.
[edit] Territorial disputes
One of the open issues in the relation between Islamic states and non-Islamic states is the claim from hardline Muslims that once a certain land, state or territory has been under 'Muslim' rule, it can never be relinquished anymore, and that such a rule, somewhere in history would give the Muslims a kind of an eternal right on the claimed territory. This claim is particularly controversial with regard to Israel and to a lesser degree Spain and parts of the Balkan. It also goes against several principles of international right, UN resolutions.
[edit] Muslims in diaspora
Many Muslims now find themselves living in many non-Muslim countries, where religious freedom is usually the ruling ideology. Many of these Muslims are still struggling to make sense of their faith in these entirely different circumstances. Some believers distance themselves completely from their "idolatrous" surroundings and look forward to a day when their new countries will become Muslim. Other Muslims, however, appreciate religious freedom and are tolerant of other faiths.
[edit] Is forced conversion allowable?
Many Muslim scholars believe that Quranic verses such as "Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error" (Quran, 2:256) and (Quran 18:29) show that Islam prohibits forced conversion towards people of any religion.
However, some Wahhabi scholars such as the controversial Ibn Baaz believe that (Quran 2:256) was (partially) abrogated by later verses such as al-Tawbah 9:5, and so the verse only applies towards Christians, Jews, and Magians (People of the Book) and not towards polytheists.[9]
- "Then when the Sacred Months (the 1st, 7th, 11th, and 12th months of the Islamic calendar) have passed, then kill the Mushrikoon (idolaters, polytheists, pagans, the disbelievers in the Oneness of God, etc) wherever you find them, and capture them and besiege them, and lie in wait for them in each and every ambush. But if they repent [by rejecting Shirk (polytheism) and accept Islamic Monotheism] and perform As-Salaah (Iqaamat-as-Salaah), and give Zakaah, then leave their way free. Verily, Allaah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful".
- (Quran 9:5)
It is claimed that that forced conversion of those regarded as "pagans" and "idolaters" was practiced by Muhammad and other Muslim leaders in the early years of Islam. Although, this is disputed by other scholars, such as Yunus Osman who state that:
- "The Shaykhs (Islamic mystic leaders) and the `Ulama' (Muslim religious scholars) who were instrumental in the propagation of the Deen (religion) were well acquainted with the fact that forced conversion was strictly prohibited by the Qur'an. Had there been a policy of forced conversions during the period of Muslim rule, which lasted for about nine hundred years, the Muslims in India would not have been included amongst the minority groups in India.[10]"
In the modern era, in most places, Islam is found to be usually spread by peaceful means (See also dawah) and forced conversion is regarded against the tenets of Islam by the majority of Muslims. However, in some socially and economically hindering places, evidence of a few cases of forced conversion has been found [11].
[edit] References
- ^ Similarities between Islam and Christianity, by Dr. Zakir Naik, drzakirnaik.com, retrieved March 23, 2006
- ^ Machine-slaughtered Meat, by Shaykh Muhammad ibn Adam al-Kawthari, eat-halal.com, retrieved March 23, 2006
- ^ Richards, Vernon (2005). Islam Undressed. Retrieved on 2006-03-26.
- ^ Zoroaster and Zoroastrians in Iran, by Massoume Price, Iran Chamber Society, retrieved March 24, 2006
- ^ Berkey, Jonathan (1980). The Formation of Islam, 2003, Cambridge University Press.
- ^ The Historical Interaction between the Buddhist and Islamic Cultures before the Mongol Empire, by Alexander Berzin, The Berzin Archives, retrieved March 24, 2006
- ^ Bangladesh Official Government Holidays 2001, bicn, 2002, retrieved March 25, 2006
- ^ The Poll Tax (Jizya), Islam.tc, retrieved March 23, 2006
- ^ Question #34770: There is no compulsion to accept Islam, by Ibn Baaz, Islam Q&A, retrieved March 25, 2006
- ^ Establishment of Islamic Institutions of learning in India, by Moulana Yunus Osman, Ask the Imam, March 2, 2001, retrieved March 22, 2006.
- ^ "Forced conversion to Islam fatal for Christian boy", AsiaNews.it, May 10, 2004, retrieved March 22, 2006
[edit] Notes
- ↑ According to some, all non-Muslims, living in a Muslim state, are required to pay jizya; but according to others, only the non-Muslims from the People of the Book (Dhimmis) should pay jizya.
