Francisco Suárez
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Francisco Suárez (5 January 1548–25 September 1617) was a Spanish philosopher and theologian, generally regarded as having been the greatest scholastic after Thomas Aquinas.
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[edit] Life and career
Suárez was born in the Spanish city of Granada. At the age of sixteen he entered the Society of Jesus at Salamanca, and he studied philosophy and theology there for five years from 1565 to 1570. It appears that he was not a promising student at first; indeed, he nearly gave up his thoughts of study after twice failing the entrance exam. After passing the exam at the third attempt, however, things changed, and he completed his course of study in philosophy with distinction, going on to study theology, then to teach philosophy at Ávila and Segovia. He was ordained in 1572, and taught theology at Ávila and Segovia (1575), Valladolid (1576), Rome (1580–85), Alcalá (1585–92), Salamanca (1592–97), and Coimbra (1597–1616).
He wrote on a wide variety of subjects, producing a vast amount of work (his complete works in Latin amount to twenty-six volumes). Suárez' writings include treatises on law, the relationship between church and state, metaphysics, and theology. He is considered the father of international law and his Disputationes metaphysicae were widely read in Europe during the seventeenth century.
Suárez was regarded during his lifetime as being the greatest living philosopher and theologian, and given the nickname Doctor Eximius et Pius; Pope Gregory XIII attended his first lecture in Rome. Pope Paul V invited him to refute the errors of James I of England, and wished to retain him near his person, to profit by his knowledge. Philip II of Spain sent him to the University of Coimbra in order to give it prestige, and when Suárez visited the University of Barcelona, the doctors of the university went out to meet him wearing the insignia of their faculties.
After his death in Portugal (in either Lisbon or Coimbra) his reputation grew still greater, and he had a direct influence on such leading philosophers as Hugo Grotius, René Descartes, and Gottfried Leibniz.
[edit] Philosophical thought
His most important philosophical achievements were in metaphysics and the philosophy of law. Suarez may be considered almost the last eminent representative of scholasticism. He adhered to a moderate form of Thomism and developed metaphysics as a systematic enquiry.
[edit] Metaphysics
For Suárez, metaphysics was the science of real essences and existence; it was mostly concerned with real being rather than conceptual being, and with immaterial rather than with material being. He held (along with earlier scholastics) that essence and existence are the same in the case of God (see ontological argument), but disagreed with Aquinas and others that the essence and existence of finite beings are really distinct. He argued that in fact they’re merely conceptually distinct; rather than being able to exist separately, they are conceivable separately. That is, rather than being logically separable, existence and essence are epistemically separable.
On the vexed subject of universals, he endeavoured to steer a middle course between the pantheistically inclined realism of Duns Scotus and the extreme nominalism of William of Occam. He is considerate a "moderate" nominalist. The only veritable and real unity in the world of existences is the individual; to assert that the universal exists separately ex parte rei would be to reduce individuals to mere accidents of one indivisible form. Suarez maintains that, though the humanity of Socrates does not differ from that of Plato, yet they do not constitute realiter one and the same humanity; there are as many "formal unities" (in this case, humanities) as there are individuals, and these individuals do not constitute a factual, but only an essential or ideal unity ("ita ut plura individua, quae dicuntur esse ejusdem naturae, non sint unum quid vera entitate quae sit in rebus, sed solum fundamentaliter vel per intellectum"). The formal unity, however, is not an arbitrary creation of the mind, but exists "in natura rei ante omnem operationem intellectus."
His metaphysical work, giving a remarkable effort of systematisation, is a real history of medieval thought, combinig the three schools available at that time: Thomism, Scotism and Nominalism. He is also a deep commentator of arabic or high medieval works. He enjoyed the reputation of being the greatest metaphysician of his time. He thus founded a school of his own, Suarism, the chief characteristic principles of which are: the principle of individuation by the proper concrete entity of beings; the pure potentiality of matter; the singular as the object of direct intellectual cognition; a nonconceptual distinction between the essence and the existence of created beings; the possibility of spiritual substance only numerically distinct from one another; ambition for the hypostatic union as the sin of the fallen angels; the Incarnation of the Word, even if Adam had not sinned; the solemnity of the vow only in ecclesiastical law; the system of Congruism that modifies Molinism by the introduction of subjective circumstances, as well as of place and of time, propitious to the action of efficacious grace, and with predestination ante praevisa merita; possibility of holding one and the same truth by both science and faith; belief in Divine authority contained in an act of faith; production of the body and blood of Christ by transubstantiation as constituting the Eucharistic sacrifice; the final grace of the Blessed Virgin Mary superior to that of the angels and saints combined.
[edit] Theology
In theology, Suarez attached himself to the doctrine of Luis Molina, the celebrated Jesuit professor of Evora. Molina tried to reconcile the doctrine of predestination with the freedom of the human will and the predestarian teachings of the Dominicans by saying that the predestination is consequent upon God's foreknowledge of the free determination of man's will, which is therefore in no way affected by the fact of such predestination. Suarez endeavoured to reconcile this view with the more orthodox doctrines of the efficacy of grace and special election, maintaining that, though all share in an absolutely sufficient grace, there is granted to the elect a grace which is so adapted to their peculiar dispositions and circumstances that they infallibly, though at the same time quite freely, yield themselves to its influence. This mediatizing system was known by the name of "congruism."
[edit] Philosophy of law
Here Suárez' main importance stems probably from his work on natural law, and from his arguments concerning positive law and the status of a monarch. In his extensive work Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore (reprinted, London, 1679) he is to some extent the precursor of Grotius and Samuel Pufendorf, in making an important distinction between natural law and international law, which he saw as based on custom. Though his method is throughout scholastic, he covers the same ground, and Grotius speaks of him in terms of high respect. The fundamental position of the work is that all legislative as well as all paternal power is derived from God, and that the authority of every law resolves itself into His. Suarez refutes the patriarchal theory of government and the divine right of kings founded upon it---doctrines popular at that time in England and to some extent on the Continent. He argued against the sort of social-contract theory that became dominant among early-modern political philosophers such as Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, but some of his thinking found echoes in the more liberal, Lockean contract theorists.
Human beings, argued Suárez, have a natural social nature bestowed upon them by God, and this includes the potential to make laws. When a political society is formed, therefore, its nature is chosen by the people involved, and they give their natural legislative power to their ruler. Because they gave this power, they have the right to take it back, to revolt against a ruler — but only if the ruler behaves badly towards them, and they're obliged to act moderately and justly. In particular, the people must refrain from killing the ruler, no matter how tyrannical he may have become. If a government is imposed on people, on the other hand, they not only have the right to defend themselves by revolting against it, they are entitled to kill the tyrannical ruler.
In 1613, at the instigation of Pope Paul V., Suarez wrote a treatise dedicated to the Christian princes of Europe, entitled Defensio catholicae fidei contra anglicanae sectae errores. This was directed against the oath of allegiance which James I exacted from his subjects. James caused it to be burned by the common hangman, and forbade its perusal under the 'severest penalties, complaining bitterly at the same time to Philip III that he should harbour in his dominions a declared enemy of the throne and majesty of kings.
[edit] Works
The Disputationes Metaphisicae were published in the Seventeenth Century by the Portugal Jesuits. In the Eighteen Century, the Venice edition in 23 volumes in folio (1740-1757) appeared, followed by the Parisian Vivès edition, 28 volumes (1856-1861). No modern edition of Suárez's complete works is yet available.
[edit] Sources and external links
- Francisco Suárez, Disputationes Metaphysicae Digitalisierungsprojekt – koordiniert von Prof. Salvador Castellote und Michael Renemann
- [Bibliographie générale
- Suarez — Catholic Encyclopedia (1911)
