前列腺癌

维基百科，自由的百科全书

前列腺癌正在翻译。欢迎您积极翻译与修订。
目前已翻译10%%，

**前列腺癌**

ICD-10	C 61
ICD-O:
ICD-9	185
OMIM	176807
MedlinePlus	000380
eMedicine	radio/574
DiseasesDB	10780

前列腺癌是出自前列腺的惡性腫瘤，前列腺是屬於男性生殖系統的一個腺體。若其中有細胞的基因突變導致增殖失控，就成為癌症。惡性細胞除了體積擴大或侵犯鄰近器官，也可能轉移到身體其他部位，尤其是骨頭和淋巴結。前列腺癌可能造成疼痛、排尿困難、勃起功能不全等症狀。

前列腺癌发病遍布世界各地。發病率各地不同。美國的发病率是世界最高，歐洲次之（歐洲各地發病率也不同），東亞與南亞最低。從人種來看，黑人前列腺癌发病率最高，白种人其次，黄种人前列腺癌发病率最低。生活在本土的黄种人比移居北美地区者发病率低。[1]但美國的數字較高也許是因為美國地區的偵測率提高了[2]。

只有男性會罹患前列腺癌，最常發生於50歲以上的人。在西方國家，前列腺癌是男性第二常見的癌症，因而喪生的人數僅次於肺癌。然而許多前列腺癌的患者終其一生沒有症狀，從未治療，死因也不是前列腺癌。許多因素，包括基因和飲食，據信和前列腺癌有關，但截至2006年為止，尚無法預防此一疾病。

前列腺癌大多是在例行的健康檢查或抽血（如PSA）篩檢發現的。有關前列腺特異抗原（即 PSA ）的準確性和效果目前仍有一些疑慮，不過它仍是現今最廣泛廣用的前列腺癌篩選工具。發現疑似前列腺癌的個案時，應做切片檢查（取一小片前列腺組織，處理後用顯微鏡檢查）才能確立診斷。其他進一步檢查如X光、電腦斷層掃描和骨骼掃瞄等，有助於了解前列腺癌是有否有外擴散。

前列腺癌的治療方法包括手術、放射治療、荷爾蒙治療，有時也做化學治療，這幾種療法可以合併運用。患者本身的年齡和健康狀況、癌細胞的擴散程度、顯微鏡所見的細胞形態，和初期治療的效果都關係到患者的預後。由於前列腺癌主要發生於老年男性，而前列腺癌的進展速度在癌症裡算是慢的，所以許多患者在癌細胞造成症狀之前就已經死於其他原因。對適當的治療方案的選擇（包括選擇是否打算治癒），即為病患對於治療方案的正面與負面效果之間的取捨。

[编辑] 前列腺

主條目：前列腺

前列腺屬於男性生殖系統，主要功能是製造與貯存前列腺液，並在射精時成為精液的一部份。成年男子的前列腺約有3厘米長，重約20公克。它位於骨盆腔，膀胱之下，直腸之前。尿道出膀胱後穿過前列腺，射精時，精液也同樣從尿道射出體外。前列腺由許多小腺體構成，它們分泌的前列腺液佔精液的20-30%體積。前列腺細胞的增殖要靠各種男性荷爾蒙來調節，包括產自睾丸的睾固酮(testosterone)、來自腎上腺的脱氢表雄酮DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone)和前列腺本身製造的二氫睾固酮 (DHT,dihydrotestosterone)。男性荷爾蒙也掌管第二性徵的表現，如臉部的鬍鬚和多於女性的肌肉量。

[编辑] 症狀

早期的前列腺癌大多沒有症狀。往往是在例行健康檢查發現 PSA 值升高，進一步追查才發現^[3]。然而有時前列腺癌也會引起症狀，而且和良性前列腺增生症的症狀很類似，包括頻尿、夜間多尿、排尿困難、尿流細小、血尿、排尿痛等。前列腺癌也可能造成性功能障礙，例如勃起困難、射精疼痛難耐。

較嚴重的前列腺癌若侵犯身體其他部位，就可能引起相對應的症狀。其中骨痛最常見，多半發生在脊椎、骨盆或肋骨，只要是癌細胞轉移之處都可能會痛。承受重量的骨頭如脊椎若因癌細胞侵犯而變得脆弱，也可能造成骨折而壓迫到脊髓神經，造成下肢無力或大小便失禁。^[4]

[编辑] 疾病生理學

(A)正常細胞若損壞而無法修復時，會自行凋亡。(B)癌細胞不會凋亡，結果持續增殖而不受控制。

[编辑] 流行病學

造成前列腺癌的原因迄今未知。[7] 男性的致病危險因子包括了年齡、遺傳、種族、節食、生活習慣、藥物等等。主要的因子在於年齡。前列腺癌在四十五歲以下是少見的，危險性隨著年齡而增加。而平均被檢測出來的年齡是七十歲。[8] 不過，很多人終其一生不知道自己有前列腺癌。对中国、德国、以色列、牙买加、瑞典以及乌干达的其他死因男性进行尸检发现，50岁以上男性中30%前列腺内存在癌细胞，而70岁以上者，此比率甚至高达80%[9]。美国2005年预计将新确诊前列腺癌患者230,000例，并且将有30,000人死于前列腺癌[10]。

[编辑] 篩檢

[编辑] 肛門指檢

檢查者帶上手套，塗上潤滑劑，將手指伸入肛門內的直腸檢查前列腺的大小形狀與質地。形狀不規則、質地硬或軟可能是腫瘤，需進一步檢查。這個檢查只檢查前列腺背面，不過85%的前列腺癌是發生在此區。能在肛門指檢中摸出來的癌症通常更為嚴重^[5]。只用肛門指檢的篩檢方式從來沒有表現出防止前列腺癌致命的能力^[6]。

[编辑] 前列腺特異抗原 PSA

[编辑] 確立診斷

唯一能確立前列腺癌診斷的方法是切片檢查，也就是切下一小片前列腺用顯微鏡觀察。但是切片檢查之前還有幾個方法能提供更多資訊。一是尿道鏡，是將一個細小的攝影機伸入尿道，進入膀胱。一是直腸超音波檢查，是將探測器伸入肛門直腸，作出前列腺超音波成像。

[编辑] 分期

[编辑] 治療

前列腺癌的治療包括观察等待、手術、放射治療、化學治療、荷爾蒙治療，或以上幾種療法合併運用。哪種療法較適合，要看腫瘤侵犯的範圍 (稱為分期)、癌細胞惡性程度 (依葛里森評分法 Gleason score)、血中PSA濃度等因素一起考慮。當然也要顧及患者的年齡、體能，並尊重患者的選擇。由於部份療法可能伴隨著嚴重的副作用，如勃起功能失調、尿失禁等，選擇治療方法時要在療效與生活品質間求取平衡。

[编辑] 观察等待

Watchful waiting

[编辑] 手術

前列腺切除術常用於早期前列腺癌，或放射治療效果不佳的患者。最常用的術式是恥骨後前列腺根除術，醫師從下腹部的切口切除前列腺、精囊和鄰近組織。另一種方式是經會陰前列腺根除術，傷口位於會陰，也就是陰囊和肛門之間。約有 70% 的患者可藉手術將前列腺癌治癒。

前列腺根除術對於癌細胞侷限於前列腺內的患者相當有效。但是手術過程中難免會傷到一些神經，而影響到患者的生活品質，最常見的併發症是尿失禁和陽萎。約有 40% 的患者手術後有尿失禁的狀況，大多是在打噴嚏、咳嗽或大笑的時候。陽萎是指患者陰莖無法勃起，或無法維持足夠的硬度，以致無法進行性生活。患者陰莖的知覺大致正常，受到刺激也能達到高潮，但是勃起和射精的功能卻很不理想。服用一些藥物如威而鋼(Viagra)、犀利士(Cialis)、樂威壯(Levitra)可使患者的性功能恢復一些。若是患者非常在乎勃起功能，也可以考慮植入陰莖假體(俗稱人工陰莖)，以維持性生活的品質。如果患者癌細胞侵犯的範圍很小，也可以用較小規模的手術，設法減少神經的傷害，以避免尿失禁和陽萎。

[编辑] 放射治療

放射治療是以集中的輻射線破壞前列腺內的癌細胞。所謂的游離性輻射能破壞DNA的結構，使癌細胞無法持續增長(手機或電器產生的電磁波不會改細胞內的分子結構，稱為非游離輻射)。用於前列腺癌的放射治療又可分為外部照射和近接治療。

外部照射是用輻射源(如鈷-60)或直線加速器產生的輻射線對準前列腺，並採用多個不同的入射角，以減少對皮膚和週邊組織的傷害。一般多將總輻射劑量計算好之後，分為 30-40 個療程，每天到治療室照射一段時間。

近接治療是將放射源的針或顆粒依矩陣方式排列，置入前列腺內，在體內持續發揮治癌效果。所用的放射源最早是用鐳，現今則多使用碘-125或鈀-133，用管狀針經由會陰推入前列腺，在超音波監視下推到定位，並永久留在體內。新式放射源的半衰期約 60 天，釋出伽馬射線(γ-ray)，穿透性低，所以家屬不用耽心被輻射線傷害。患者可以自由行動，不必天天上醫院報到。

[编辑] 冷凍治療

治前列腺癌也可以用冷凍治療。冷凍治療較不具侵略性，也較不需全身麻醉。作法是從會陰皮膚插入一根金屬棒，以超音波導引伸到前列腺，然後使用液態氮冷卻棒子，將周圍組織冰凍於攝氏零下196度。前列腺細胞內的水若是結凍，細胞也就死了。尿道另外插入一支充滿溫液體的導尿管以免尿道結凍。冷凍治療可以減少排尿問題，但是勃起困難的可能則提高到90%。冷凍治療用來作前列腺癌的起始治療，效果不如手術或是放射治療。^[7]但用來治療放射治療後復發的癌症則比根治式攝護腺切除術好。

[编辑] 荷爾蒙治療

Image:Prostatehormone.jpg

Hormonal therapy in prostate cancer. Diagram shows the different organs (purple text), hormones (black text and arrows), and treatments (red text and arrows) important in hormonal therapy.

Hormonal therapy uses medications or surgery to block prostate cancer cells from getting dihydrotestosterone (DHT), a hormone produced in the prostate and required for the growth and spread of most prostate cancer cells. Blocking DHT often causes prostate cancer to stop growing and even shrink. However, hormonal therapy rarely cures prostate cancer because cancers which initially respond to hormonal therapy typically become resistant after one to two years. Hormonal therapy is therefore usually used when cancer has spread from the prostate. It may also be given to certain men undergoing radiation therapy or surgery to help prevent return of their cancer.^[8]

Hormonal therapy for prostate cancer targets the pathways the body uses to produce DHT. A feedback loop involving the testicles, the hypothalamus, and the pituitary, adrenal, and prostate glands controls the blood levels of DHT. First, low blood levels of DHT stimulate the hypothalamus to produce gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). GnRH then stimulates the pituitary gland to produce luteinizing hormone (LH), and LH stimulates the testicles to produce testosterone. Finally, testosterone from the testicles and dehydroepiandrosterone from the adrenal glands stimulate the prostate to produce more DHT. Hormonal therapy can decrease levels of DHT by interrupting this pathway at any point.

There are several forms of hormonal therapy:

Orchiectomy is surgery to remove the testicles. Because the testicles make most of the body's testosterone, after orchiectomy testosterone levels drop. Now the prostate not only lacks the testosterone stimulus to produce DHT, but also it does not have enough testosterone to transform into DHT.
Antiandrogens are medications such as flutamide, bicalutamide, nilutamide, and cyproterone acetate which directly block the actions of testosterone and DHT within prostate cancer cells.
Medications which block the production of adrenal androgens such as DHEA include ketoconazole and aminoglutethimide. Because the adrenal glands only make about 5% of the body's androgens, these medications are generally used only in combination with other methods that can block the 95% of androgens made by the testicles. These combined methods are called total androgen blockade (TAB). TAB can also be achieved using antiandrogens.
GnRH action can be interrupted in one of two ways. GnRH antagonists suppress the production of GnRH directly, while GnRH agonists suppress GnRH through the process of downregulation after an initial stimulation effect. Abarelix is an example of a GnRH antagonist, while the GnRH agonists include leuprolide, goserelin, triptorelin, and buserelin. Initially, these medications increase the production of LH. However, because the constant supply of the medication does not match the body's natural production rhythm, production of both LH and GnRH decreases after a few weeks.^[9]

As of 2005 the most successful hormonal treatments are orchiectomy and GnRH agonists. Despite their higher cost, GnRH agonists are often chosen over orchiectomy for cosmetic and emotional reasons. Eventually, total androgen blockade may prove to be better than orchiectomy or GnRH agonists used alone.

[编辑] 姑息性照護

Palliative care

[编辑] 預後

[编辑] 預防

如果发现有前列腺癌的可能，就有可能会全部切除睾丸。因为睾丸产生的激素，会导致前列腺癌的不断扩大。

[编辑] References

^ American Cancer Society webpage. Detailed Guide: prostate cancer. Found at http://www.cancer.org/docroot/CRI/CRI_2_3x.asp?rnav=cridg&dt=36 （寫給一般非專業人士的資料。）
^ Aumüller, G. Prostate Gland and Seminal Vesicles. Springer-Verlag Berlin-Heidelberg. 1979.
^ Moore, K., Dalley, A. Clinically Oriented Anatomy. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Maryland. 1999.
^ Steive, H. Männliche Genitalorgane. In: Handbuch der mikroskopischen Anatomie des Menschen. Vol. VII Part 2, pp. 1-399. Berlin: Springer 1930.
^ Miller, DC, Hafez, KS, Stewart, A, et al (2003). "Prostate carcinoma presentation, diagnosis, and staging: an update form the National Cancer Data Base". Cancer 98: 1169. PMID 12973840.

^ van der Cruijsen-Koeter IW, Vis AN, Roobol MJ, Wildhagen MF, de Koning HJ, van der Kwast TH, Schroder FH. Comparison of screen detected and clinically diagnosed prostate cancer in the European randomized study of screening for prostate cancer, section rotterdam. Urol. 2005 Jul;174(1):121-5. PMID 15947595
^ Hankey BF, Feuer EJ, Clegg LX, Hayes RB, Legler JM, Prorok PC, Ries LA, Merrill RM, Kaplan RS. Cancer surveillance series: interpreting trends in prostate cancer--part I: Evidence of the effects of screening in recent prostate cancer incidence, mortality, and survival rates. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1999 Jun 16;91(12):1017-24. PMID 10379964
^ Ann W. Hsing and Anand P. Chokkalingam. Prostate cancer epidemiology Frontiers in Bioscience 11, 1388-1413, May 1, 2006. http://www.bioscience.org/2006/v11/af/1891/fulltext.htm
^ Breslow N, Chan CW, Dhom G, Drury RA, Franks LM, Gellei B, Lee YS, Lundberg S, Sparke B, Sternby NH, Tulinius H. Latent carcinoma of prostate at autopsy in seven areas. The International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyons, France. Int J Cancer. 1977 Nov 15;20(5):680-8. PMID 924691
^ Jemal A, Murray T, Ward E, Samuels A, Tiwari RC, Ghafoor A, Feuer EJ, Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2005. CA Cancer J Clin. 2005 Jan-Feb;55(1):10-30. Erratum in: CA Cancer J Clin. 2005 Jul-Aug;55(4):259. PMID 15661684
^ Hoffman RM; Gilliland FD; Eley JW; Harlan LC; Stephenson RA; Stanford JL; Albertson PC; Hamilton AS; Hunt WC; Potosky AL. Racial and ethnic differences in advanced-stage prostate cancer: the Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2001 Mar 7;93(5):388-95. PMID 11238701
^ Steinberg GD; Carter BS; Beaty TH; Childs B; Walsh PC. Family history and the risk of prostate cancer. Prostate. 1990;17(4):337-47. PMID 2251225
^ Lichtenstein P; Holm NV; Verkasalo PK; Iliadou A; Kaprio J; Koskenvuo M; Pukkala E; Skytthe A; Hemminki K. Environmental and heritable factors in the causation of cancer--analyses of cohorts of twins from Sweden, Denmark, and Finland. N Engl J Med. 2000 Jul 13;343(2):78-85. PMID 10891514
^ Struewing JP; Hartge P; Wacholder S; Baker SM; Berlin M; McAdams M; Timmerman MM; Brody LC; Tucker MA. The risk of cancer associated with specific mutations of BRCA1 and BRCA2 among Ashkenazi Jews. N Engl J Med. 1997 May 15;336(20):1401-8. PMID 9145676
^ Gann, PH and Giovannucci - Prostate Cancer and Nutrition （PDF） - 於2006-02-20造訪。
^ Schulman CC; Ekane S; Zlotta AR. Nutrition and prostate cancer: evidence or suspicion? Urology. 2001 Sep;58(3):318-34. PMID 11549473
^ Jacobs EJ, Rodriguez C, Mondul AM, Connell CJ, Henley SJ, Calle EE, Thun MJ. A large cohort study of aspirin and other nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and prostate cancer incidence. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2005 Jul 6;97(13):975-80. PMID 15998950
^ Shannon J, Tewoderos S, Garzotto M, Beer TM, Derenick R, Palma A, Farris PE. Statins and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study. Am J Epidemiol. 2005 Aug 15;162(4):318-25. Epub 2005 Jul 13. PMID 16014776
^ Giovannucci E, Tosteson TD, Speizer FE, Ascherio A, Vessey MP, Colditz GA. A retrospective cohort study of vasectomy and prostate cancer in US men. JAMA. 1993 Feb 17;269(7):878-82. PMID 8123059
^ Giles GG; Severi G; English DR; McCredie MR; Borland R; Boyle P; Hopper JL. Sexual factors and prostate cancer. BJU Int. 2003 Aug;92(3):211-6. PMID 12887469
^ Dennis LK; Lynch CF; Torner JC. Epidemiologic association between prostatitis and prostate cancer. Urology. 2002 Jul;60(1):78-83. PMID 12100928
^ Calle EE, Rodriguez C, Walker-Thurmond K, Thun MJ. Overweight, obesity, and mortality from cancer in a prospectively studied cohort of U.S. adults. N Engl J Med. 2003 Apr 24;348(17):1625-38. PMID 12711737
^ Gann PH, Hennekens CH, Ma J, Longcope C, Stampfer MJ. Prospective study of sex hormone levels and risk of prostate cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1996 Aug 21;88(16):1118-26. PMID 8757191
^ Grubb RL, Roehl KA, Antenor JA, Catalona WJ. Results of compliance with prostate cancer screening guidelines. J Urol. 2005 Aug;174(2):668-72; discussion 672. PMID 16006944
^ Chodak GW, Keller P, Schoenberg HW. Assessment of screening for prostate cancer using the digital rectal examination. J Urol. 1989 May;141(5):1136-8. PMID 2709500
^ Krahn MD, Mahoney JE, Eckman MH, Trachtenberg J, Pauker SG, Detsky AS. Screening for prostate cancer. A decision analytic view. JAMA. 1994 Sep 14;272(10):773-80. PMID 7521400
^ Roobol MJ, Kranse R, de Koning HJ, Schroder FH. Prostate-specific antigen velocity at low prostate-specific antigen levels as screening tool for prostate cancer: results of second screening round of ERSPC (ROTTERDAM). Urology. 2004 Feb;63(2):309-13; discussion 313-5. PMID 14972478
^ Catalona WJ, Richie JP, deKernion JB, Ahmann FR, Ratliff TL, Dalkin BL, Kavoussi LR, MacFarlane MT, Southwick PC. Comparison of prostate specific antigen concentration versus prostate specific antigen density in the early detection of prostate cancer: receiver operating characteristic curves. J Urol. 1994 Dec;152(6 Pt 1):2031-6. PMID 7525994
^ Hoffman RM, Clanon DL, Littenberg B, Frank JJ, Peirce JC. Using the free-to-total prostate-specific antigen ratio to detect prostate cancer in men with nonspecific elevations of prostate-specific antigen levels. J Gen Intern Med. 2000 Oct;15(10):739-48. PMID 11089718
^ Partin AW; Brawer MK; Bartsch G; Horninger W; Taneja SS; Lepor H; Babaian R; Childs SJ; Stamey T; Fritsche HA; Sokoll L; Chan DW; Thiel RP; Cheli CD. Complexed prostate specific antigen improves specificity for prostate cancer detection: results of a prospective multicenter clinical trial.J Urol. 2003 Nov;170(5):1787-91. PMID 14532777
^ Essink-Bot ML, de Koning HJ, Nijs HG, Kirkels WJ, van der Maas PJ, Schroder FH. Short-term effects of population-based screening for prostate cancer on health-related quality of life.J Natl Cancer Inst. 1998 Jun 17;90(12):925-31. PMID 9637143
^ Wu H, Sun L, Moul JW, Wu HY, McLeod DG, Amling C, Lance R, Kusuda L, Donahue T, Foley J, Chung A, Sexton W, Soderdahl D. Watchful waiting and factors predictive of secondary treatment of localized prostate cancer.J Urol. 2004 Mar;171(3):1111-6. PMID 14767282
^ Gerber GS, Thisted RA, Scardino PT, Frohmuller HG, Schroeder FH, Paulson DF, Middleton AW Jr, Rukstalis DB, Smith JA Jr, Schellhammer PF, Ohori M, Chodak GW. Results of radical prostatectomy in men with clinically localized prostate cancer. JAMA. 1996 Aug 28;276(8):615-9. PMID 8773633
^ Ward JF, Zincke H (2003). "Radical prostatectomy for the patient with locally advanced prostate cancer". Curr Urol Rep 4 (3): 196-204. PMID 12756082.

^ Perez CA, Hanks GE, Leibel SA, Zietman AL, Fuks Z, Lee WR. Localized carcinoma of the prostate (stages T1B, T1C, T2, and T3). Review of management with external beam radiation therapy. Cancer. 1993 Dec 1;72(11):3156-73. Review. PMID 7694785
^ D'Amico AV, Manola J, Loffredo M, Renshaw AA, DellaCroce A, Kantoff PW (2004). "6-month androgen suppression plus radiation therapy vs radiation therapy alone for patients with clinically localized prostate cancer: a randomized controlled trial". JAMA 292 (7): 821-7. PMID 15315996.

^ Lawton CA, Won M, Pilepich MV, Asbell SO, Shipley WU, Hanks GE, Cox JD, Perez CA, Sause WT, Doggett SR, et al. Long-term treatment sequelae following external beam irradiation for adenocarcinoma of the prostate: analysis of RTOG studies 7506 and 7706. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 1991 Sep;21(4):935-9. PMID 1917622
^ Brenner DJ, Curtis RE, Hall EJ, Ron E. Second malignancies in prostate carcinoma patients after radiotherapy compared with surgery. Cancer. 2000 Jan 15;88(2):398-406. PMID 10640974
^ Bahn DK, Lee F, Badalament R, Kumar A, Greski J, Chernick M. Targeted cryoablation of the prostate: 7-year outcomes in the primary treatment of prostate cancer. Urology. 2002 Aug;60(2 Suppl 1):3-11. PMID 12206842
^ Robson M, Dawson N.How is androgen-dependent metastatic prostate cancer best treated? Hematol Oncol Clin North Am. 1996 Jun;10(3):727-47. Review. PMID 8773508
^ Loblaw DA, Mendelson DS, Talcott JA, Virgo KS, Somerfield MR, Ben-Josef E, Middleton R, Porterfield H, Sharp SA, Smith TJ, Taplin ME, Vogelzang NJ, Wade JL Jr, Bennett CL, Scher HI; American Society of Clinical Oncology. American Society of Clinical Oncology recommendations for the initial hormonal management of androgen-sensitive metastatic, recurrent, or progressive prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol. 2004 Jul 15;22(14):2927-41. Erratum in: J Clin Oncol. 2004 Nov 1;22(21):4435. PMID 15184404
^ Tannock IF, de Wit R, Berry WR, Horti J, Pluzanska A, Chi KN, Oudard S, Theodore C, James ND, Turesson I, Rosenthal MA, Eisenberger MA; TAX 327 Investigators. Docetaxel plus prednisone or mitoxantrone plus prednisone for advanced prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2004 Oct 7;351(15):1502-12. PMID 1547021
^ Saad F, Gleason DM, Murray R, Tchekmedyian S, Venner P, Lacombe L, Chin JL, Vinholes JJ, Goas JA, Chen B (2002). "A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of zoledronic acid in patients with hormone-refractory metastatic prostate carcinoma". J Natl Cancer Inst 94 (19): 1458-68. PMID 12359855.

^ Jemal A; Murray T; Ward E; Samuels A; Tiwari RC; Ghafoor A; Feuer EJ; Thun MJ. Cancer statistics, 2005. CA Cancer J Clin. 2005 Jan-Feb;55(1):10-30. Erratum in: CA Cancer J Clin. 2005 Jul-Aug;55(4):259. PMID 15661684
^ Wakai K. [Descriptive epidemiology of prostate cancer in Japan and Western countries] Nippon Rinsho. 2005 Feb;63(2):207-12. Review. Japanese. PMID 15714967
^ Yeole BB, Sunny L. Population based survival from prostate cancer in Mumbai (Bombay), India. Indian J Cancer. 2001 Jun-Dec;38(2-4):126-32. PMID 1259345
^ Hsing AW, Tsao L, Devesa SS. International trends and patterns of prostate cancer incidence and mortality. Int J Cancer. 2000 Jan 1;85(1):60-7. PMID 10585584
^ Osegbe DN. Prostate cancer in Nigerians: facts and nonfacts. J Urol. 1997 Apr;157(4):1340-3. PMID 9120935
^ Di Blasio CJ, Rhee AC, Cho D, Scardino PT, Kattan MW (2003). "Predicting clinical end points: treatment nomograms in prostate cancer". Semin Oncol 30 (5): 567-86. PMID 14571407.

^ (2003) "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets". J Am Diet Assoc 103 (6): 748-65. PMID 12778049.

^ Steiner, MS, Pound, CR, Gingrich, JR, et al. Acapodene (GTx-006) reduces high-grade prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia in phase II clinical trial (abstract). Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 2002; 21:180a.
^ Price, D, Stein, B, Goluboff, E, et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of toremifene for the provention of prostate cancer in men with high-grade prostatic intrapeithelial neoplasia (abstract). J Clin Oncol 2005; 23:106s.
^ Thompson IM, Goodman PJ, Tangen CM, Lucia MS, Miller GJ, Ford LG, Lieber MM, Cespedes RD, Atkins JN, Lippman SM, Carlin SM, Ryan A, Szczepanek CM, Crowley JJ, Coltman CA Jr. The influence of finasteride on the development of prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2003 Jul 17;349(3):215-24. PMID 12824459
^ Andriole GL, Roehrborn C, Schulman C, Slawin KM, Somerville M, Rittmaster RS. Effect of dutasteride on the detection of prostate cancer in men with benign prostatic hyperplasia. Urology. 2004 Sep;64(3):537-41; discussion 542-3. PMID 15351586
^ Strom SS, Yamamura Y, Duphorne CM, Spitz MR, Babaian RJ, Pillow PC, Hursting SD. Phytoestrogen intake and prostate cancer: a case-control study using a new database. Nutr Cancer. 1999;33(1):20-5. Erratum in: Nutr Cancer 2000;36(2):243. PMID 10227039
^ Adams, J. The case of scirrhous of the prostate gland with corresponding affliction of the lymphatic glands in the lumbar region and in the pelvis. Lancet 1, 393 (1853).
^ Lytton, B. Prostate cancer: a brief history and the discovery of hormonal ablation treatment. J. Urol. 165, 1859-1862
^ Young, H. H. Four cases of radical prostatectomy. Johns Hopkins Bull. 16, 315 (1905).
^ Walsh, P. C., Lepor, H. & Eggleston, J. C. Radical prostatectomy with preservation of sexual function: anatomical and pathological considerations. Prostate 4, 473-485 (1983). PMID 6889192
^ Huggins, C. B. & Hodges, C. V. Studies on prostate cancer: 1. The effects of castration, of estrogen and androgen injection on serum phosphatases in metastatic carcinoma of the prostate. Cancer Res. 1, 203 (1941).
^ Schally, A. V., Kastin, A. J. & Arimura, A. Hypothalamic FSH and LH-regulating hormone. Structure, physiology and clinical studies. Fertil. Steril. 22, 703-721 (1971).
^ Tolis G, Ackman D, Stellos A, Mehta A, Labrie F, Fazekas AT, Comaru-Schally AM, Schally AV. Tumor growth inhibition in patients with prostatic carcinoma treated with luteinizing hormone-releasing hormone agonists. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1982 Mar;79(5):1658-62 PMID 6461861
^ Denmeade SR, Isaacs JT. A History of Prostate Cancer Treatment. Nature Reviews Cancer 2, 389-396 (2002). PMID 12044015
^ Scott, W. W. et al. Chemotherapy of advanced prostatic carcinoma with cyclophosphamide or 5-fluorouracil: results of first national randomized study. J. Urol. 114, 909-911 (1975). PMID 1104900

[编辑] 外部連結

来自“http://zh.wikipedia.org../../../%E5%89%8D/%E5%88%97/%E8%85%BA/%E5%89%8D%E5%88%97%E8%85%BA%E7%99%8C.html”

页面分类: 翻譯請求 | 癌症 | 泌尿科 | 前列腺