Dinasti Chola

From Wikipedia

Templat:Dinasti Chola Dinasti Chola (bahasa Tamil: சோழர் குலம், IPA: /'ʧoːɻə/) ialah dinasti Tamil yang memerintah primarily di India selatan sehingga abad ke-13 CE. Wangsa tersebut berasal dari lembah subur Sungai Kaveri. Karikala Chola salah satu raja-raja yang termasyur early Chola, sedangkan Raja-raja Chola, Rajendra Chola dan Kulothunga Chola I maharaja masyur Zaman Pertengahan Chola.

Kerajaan Chola pada ketinggian kuasa mereka pada abad-abad kesepuluh, kesebelas dan keduabelas. Di bawah Rajaraja Chola I (Rajaraja yang hebat) dan anak lelakinya Rajendra Chola, wangsa itu menjadi sebuah kuasa tentara, economi dan kebudayaan di Asia. Wilayah-wilayah Chola meregang dari kepulauan Maldives di Selatan ke as far North as the banks of the river Godavari in Andhra Pradesh. Raja-raja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola mengirim sebuah ekspidisi yang berjaya ke Utara India yang menyentuh sungai Ganga dan menewaskan pemerintah Pala Pataliputra, Mahipala. Dia juga berjaya meyerang dan menakluk kerajaan-kerajaan Nusantara Melayu. power Chola merosot kira-kira pada abad ke-14th dengan kenaikan Pandyas dan Hoysala.

Kerajaan Chola telah meninggalkan suatu pusaka yang abadi. Naungan mereka pada Kesusasteraan Tamil dan semangat meraka dengan pembinaan kuil telah menghasilkan kerja-kerja hebat pada kesusasteraan dan seni bina Tamil. Raja-raja Chola pembina yang bergemaran dan membayangkan kuil-kuil di kerejaan-kerajaan mereka bukan hanya sebagai tempat beribadah malah juga pusat aktiviti perekonomian. Mereka meneroka suatu bentuk berpusat kerajaan dan menubuhkan birokrasi berdisiplin.

Jadual isi kandungan 1 Asal 2 Sejarah 2.1 Chola pada awalnya 2.2 Interregnum 2.3 Chola Zaman Pertengahan 2.4 Chalukya Chola 3 Kerajaan dan masyarakat 3.1 Negara Chola 3.2 Sifat kerajaan 3.3 Kerajaan tempatan 3.4 Perdagangan asing 3.5 Masyarakat Chola 4 Penyumbanyan kebudayaan 4.1 Kesenian 4.2 Kesusasteraan 4.3 Agama 5 Pada kemasyuran kebudayaan 6 Nota 7 Rujukan 8 Lihat pula

[Sunting] Asal

Tiada penerangan selanjutnya mengenai asal usul perkataan Chola.^[2] Penyebutan pada kesusasteraan Sangam (c. 150)^[3] menunjukkan bahawa raja-raja awal wangsa ini antedated 100 CE. Parimelalagar, penganotasi klasik Tamil Tirukkural, menyebut bahawa ini kemungkinan nama sebuah puak purba. Pemandangan yang terumum adalah bahawa ini, seperti Cheras dan Pandyas, nama pemerintah keluarga atau puak immemorial antiquity.^[4] Attempts have been made to connect the word with the Sanskrit Kala (black) and with Kola, which in the early days designated the dark coloured pre-Aryan population of Southern India in general.^[5]

Pada sejarah Chola ada sangat sedikit kebuktian ketulisan asli. Para sejarawan pada 150 tahun yang lalu telah memungut banyak ilmu pada subjek itu dari sumber-sumber beraneka seperti Tamil kesusasteraan Sangam purba, tradisi lisan, teks keagamaan, kul dan pinggan-tembaga bertulisan. Sumber utama untuk penerangan yang ada pada Chola awal adalah kesusasteraan Zaman Sangam.^[6]

Ada juga kenyataan brief mengenai nagara Chola country dan pekan-pekan, pelabuhan dan perdagangannya seperti diceritakan oleh Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Periplus Maris Erythraei). Periplus adalah kerja pedagang Alexandria yang tidak dikenali, ditulislkan pada waktu Domitian (81 – 96 CE) dan mengandungi penerangan yang amat sedikit mengenai negara Chola. ^[7] Menulis separuh abad kemudian, seorang ahli geografi Ptolemy memberi butiran tentang negera Chola, pelabuhannya dan bandar-bandar dalamnya. Mahavamsa, sebuah teks Buddha, menceritakan berbagai konflik diantara penduduk Ceylon dan pendatang-pendatang Tamil. ^[8] Cholas telah disebut dalam tulisan Rukun Ashoka (inscribed 273 – 232 BCE), dimana mereka disebut di antara kerajaan-kerajaan yang, walaupun tidak ditakluk Ashoka, berada dalam keadaan peramah dengannya. ^[9]

[Sunting] Sejarah

Sejarah Chola dapat dibahagikan pada empat tempoh: Chola awal pada kesusasteraan Sangam, the interregnum between the fall of the Sangam Cholas dan kenaikan Pertengahan Cholas dibawah Vijayalaya (c. 848 CE), wangsa Vijayalaya, dan akhirnya wangsa Chalukya Chola Kulothunga Chola I dari tiga suku pada abad kesebelas.^[10]

[Sunting] Chola pada awalnya

Rencana utama: Chola awal

The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries CE.^[3] The internal chronology of this literature is still far from settled, and at present a connected account of the history of the period cannot be derived. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the poets who extolled them. Despite a rich literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these cannot be worked into connected history.

The Sangam literature is also full of legends about the mythical Chola kings. The Cholas were looked on as descended from the sun.^[11] These myths speak of the Chola king Kantaman, a supposed contemporary of the sage Agastya, whose devotion brought the river Kaveri into existence.^[12] Two names stand out prominently from among those Chola kings known from the Sangam literature: Karikala Chola and Kocengannan. There is no sure means of settling the order of succession, of fixing their relations with one another and with many other princelings of about the same period.^[13] Urayur (near Thiruchirapalli) was their oldest capital.

[Sunting] Interregnum

Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300 CE) to that in which the Pandyas and Pallavas dominate the Tamil country. An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries. They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the sixth century CE. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the ninth century.

Epigraphy and literature provide a few faint glimpses of the transformations that came over this ancient line of kings during this long interval. What is certain is that when the power of Cholas fell to the lowest ebb and that of the Pandyas and Pallavas rose the north and South of them,^[14] this dynasty was compelled to seek refuge and patronage under their more successful rivals.^[15] The Pallavas and Pandyas seem to have left the Cholas alone for the most part; however, possibly out of regard for their reputation, they accepted Chola princesses in marriage and employed in their service Chola princes who were willing to accept it.^[16] The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, who spent several months in Kanchipuram during 639 – 640 CE writes about the 'kingdom of Culi-ya'.^[17] Numerous inscriptions of Pallavas, Pandyas and Chalukya of this period mention conquering 'the Chola country'.^[18] Despite this loss in influence and power, it is unlikely that the Cholas lost total grip of the territory around Urayur, their old capital. Vijayalaya when he rose to prominence hailed from this geographical area.

Around the seventh century CE, a Chola kingdom flourished in present-day Andhra Pradesh. These Telugu Cholas traced their descent to the early Sangam Cholas.^[19] However, nothing definite is known of their connection to the early Cholas. It is possible that a branch of the Tamil Cholas migrated north during the time of the Pallavas to establish a kingdom of their own, away from the dominating influences of the Pandyas and Pallavas.

[Sunting] Chola Zaman Pertengahan

Rencana utama: Chola Zaman Pertengahan

While there is little reliable information on the Cholas during the period between the early Cholas and Vijayalaya dynasties, there is an abundance of materials from diverse sources on the Vijayalaya and the Chalukya Chola dynasties. A large number of stone inscriptions by the Cholas themselves and by their rival kings, Pandyas and Chalukyas, and copper-plate grants, have been instrumental in constructing the history of Cholas of that period.^[20]

Around 850 CE, Vijayalaya rose from obscurity to take an opportunity arising out of a conflict between Pandyas and Pallavas,^[21] captured Thanjavur and eventually established the imperial line of the medieval Cholas.^[22]

The Chola dynasty was at the peak of its influence and power during the medieval period. Great kings such as Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I occupied the throne, and through their leadership and vision took extended the Chola kingdom beyond the traditional limits of a Tamil kingdom. At its peak, the Chola Empire stretched from the island of Sri Lanka in the south to the Godavari basin in the north. The kingdoms along the east coast of India up to the river Ganges acknowledged Chola suzerainty. Chola navies invaded and conquered Srivijaya in the Malayan archipelago.^[23]

Throughout this period, the Cholas were constantly troubled by the ever-resilient Sinhalas, who attempted to overthrow the Chola occupation of Lanka, Pandya princes who tried to win independence for their traditional territories, and by the growing ambitions of the Chalukyas in the western Deccan. This period saw constant warfare between the Cholas and these antagonists. A balance of power existed between the Chalukyas and the Cholas, and there was a tacit acceptance of the Tungabhadra river as the boundary between the two empires. However, the bone of contention between these two powers was the growing Chola influence in the Vengi kingdom.

[Sunting] Chalukya Chola

Templat:Main article

Perikatan perkahwinan dan politik diantara raja-raja Chalukya Timur berasas around Vengi located on the south banks of the River Godavari began during the reign of Rajaraja following his invasion of Vengi. Rajaraja Chola's daughter married prince Vimaladitya. Rajendra Chola's daughter was also married to an Eastern Chalukya prince Rajaraja Narendra.

Anak lelaki Virarajendra Chola, Athirajendra Chola telah dibunuh dalam rusuhan umum pada 1070 CE dan Kulothunga Chola I menaiki takhta Chola dengan itu memulakan dinasti Chalukya Cholas. Kulothunga merupakan anak lelaki raja Vengi - Rajaraja Narendra.

Dinasti Chalukya Chola mempunyai pemerintah yang berkebolehan iaitu Kulothunga Chola I dan Vikrama Chola; bagaimanapun, kejatuhan kuasa Chola sebenarnya bermula semenjak tempoh masa ini. Cholas kehilangan penguasaan pada pulau Lanka dan dihalau keluar oleh kebangkitan kuasa Sinhala. Sekitar 1118 CE mereka hilang penguasaan pada Vengi kepada raja Vikramaditya VI dari Chalukyas Barat dan Gangavadi (daerah selatan Mysore) kepada kuasa Hoysala Vishnuvardhana yang sedang meningkat, Chalukya feudatory. Dalam daerah Pandya, ketiadaan pengawalan pentakbiran pusat mendorong kepada beberapa tuntutan kepada takhta Pandya mengakibatkan perang saudara dimana Sinhalas dan Cholas terbabit secara proxy. Semada abad terakhir pemerintahan Cholas, tentera Hoysala ditempatkan secara kekal di Kanchipuram bagi melindungi mereka daripada pengaruh Pandyas yang semakin kuat.

Cholas, di bawah Rajendra Chola III, mengalami pergolakan yang berterusan. Pada penghujung abad ke-12 CE, pengaruh Hoysalas yang semakin meningkat menggantikan Chalukyas yang semakin merosot sebagai kuasa utama di utara. The local feudatories were also becoming sufficiently confident to challenge the central Chola authority. One feudatory, the Kadava chieftain Kopperunchinga I, even held the Chola king as hostage for sometime. The Cholas were exposed to assaults from within and without. The Pandyas in the south had risen to the rank of a great power. The Hoysalas in the west threatened the existence of the Chola empire. Rajendra tried to survive by aligning with the two powers in turn. At the close of Rajendra’s reign, the Pandyan Empire was at the height of prosperity and had taken the place of the Chola empire in the eyes of the foreign observers. The last recorded date of Rajendra III is 1279 C.E. There is no evidence that Rajendra was followed immediately by another Chola prince. The Chola empire was completely overshadowed by the Pandyan empire, though many small chieftains continued to claim the title "Chola" well into fifteenth century C.E.

[Sunting] Kerajaan dan masyarakat

Rencana utama: Kerajaan Chola

[Sunting] Negara Chola

Menurut adat Tamil, negara Chola lama mengandungi daerah-daerah yang termasuk pada hari kini district Tirachirappli dan [[[Thanjavur]] di negeri Tamil Nadu. Sungai Kaveri dan cawang sungainya menguasai landskap ini yang umumnya negara datar yang beransur-ansurnya menyerung terhadap laut, tidak dipisahkan oleh bukit-bakau atau lembah-lembah. Sungai Kaveri, yang juga digelar sebagai sungai Ponni (keemasan), ada tempat istimewa pada kebudayaan Chola. Kebanjiran-kebanjiran tahunan di Kaveri menanda pesta, Adiperukku, yang mana keselurahan negara mengambil bahagian, dari raja ke orang fakir miskin.

Kaverippattinam di pantai berdekatan kuala Kaveri ialah sebuah bandar penting. Ptolemy ketahui ini dan juga bandar pelabuhan Nagappattinam sebagai pusat-pusat terpenting Chola.^[24] Kedua-dua bandar-bandar kosmopolitan tersebut menjadi tempat pusat perdagangan dan menarik penganut dari berbagai agama, termasuk agama Buddha.^[25] Ghali Romawi menjumpai perjalan mereka ke pelabuhan-pelabuhan ini. Duit syiling Romawi bertarikh dari abad-abad awal CE telah dijumpai berdekatan dengan kuala Kaveri.^[26]

Bandar-bandar terpenting yang lain adalah Thanjavur, Urayur dan Kudanthai. Selepas Rajendra Chola mengalihkan kerajaanya ke Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Thanjavur hilang prestij. Raja-raja Chola kemudian dari dinasti Chalukya Chola sering memindah negara mereka dan membuat bandaraya-bendaraya seperti Chidambaram, Madurai dan Kanchipuram ibu negara wilayah-wilayahnya.

[Sunting] Sifat kerajaan

Pada zaman Chola, keseluruhan India selatan telah, pada pertama kali, dibawa ke bawah satu kerajaan,^[27] when a serious attempt was made to face and solve the problems of public administration. The Chola system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. However, there was little in common between the primitive and somewhat tribal chieftaincy of the earlier time, and the almost Byzantine royalty—Rajaraja Chola—and his successors with its numerous palaces, and the pomp and circumstance associated with the royal court.

Di antara 980 CE, and c. 1150 CE, Chola mempunyai keseluruhan semenanjung India selatan, mengembang dari timur ke barat dari pantai ke pantai, dan bersempadan ke utara oleh garisan yang bengkang-bengkok ditepi-tepi sungai Tungabhadra dan batasan Vengi. Walaupun Vengi ada kuwujudan politik yang berlainan, ia sangat dekatnya berhubung kepada Empayar Chola yang, pada alasan praktikal, dominion Chola mengembang ke tepi sungai Godavari.^[28]

Thanjavur dan kemudian Gangaikonda Cholapuram adalah ibu negara empayarnya. Walaubagaimanapun, kedua-kuduanya Kanchipuram dan Madurai dianggap ibu negara daerah-daerah, yang perundangan sekali-sekala dipegang. The king was the supreme commander and a benevolent dictator.^[29] His administrative role consisted of issuing oral commands to responsible officers when representations were made to him.^[30] A powerful bureaucracy assisted the king in the tasks of administration and in executing his orders. Due to the lack of a legislature or a legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king’s orders dependent on the goodness of the man and in his belief in Dharma—a sense of fairness and justice. All Chola kings built temples and endowed great wealth to them. The temples acted not only as places of worship but as centres of economic activity, benefiting their entire community.^[31]

[Sunting] Kerajaan tempatan

Every village was a self-governing unit. A number of villages constituted a larger entity known as a Kurram, Nadu or Kottram, depending on the area. A number of Kurrams constituted a valanadu. These structures underwent constant change and refinement throughout the Chola period.^[32]

Justice was mostly a local matter in the Chola Empire; minor disputes were settled at the village level. Punishment for minor crimes were in the form of fines or a direction for the offender to donate to some charitable endowment. Even crimes such as manslaughter or murder were punished with fines. Crimes of the state, such as treason, were heard and decided by the king himself; the typical punishment in these cases was either execution or the confiscation of property.^[33]

[Sunting] Perdagangan asing

The Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of ninth century CE, the countries of southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the west and the east costs of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Kalifat at Bagdad were the main trading partners.^[34]

Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola) reached the Chinese court in the year 1077 CE, and that the king of the Chulien at the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo.^[35] It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with 81,800 strings of copper coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices.^[36]

A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola country.^[37] The inscription is dated 1088 CE, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the Chola period.

[Sunting] Masyarakat Chola

There is little information on the size and the density of the population during the Chola reign. The overwhelming stability in the core Chola region enabled the people to lead a very productive and contented life. There is only one recorded instance of civil disturbance during the entire period of Chola reign.^[38] However, there were reports of widespread famine caused by natural calamities.

The quality of the inscriptions of the regime indicates a presence of high level of literacy and education in the society. The text in these inscriptions was written by court poets and engraved by talented artisans. Education in the contemporary sense was not considered important; there is circumstantial evidence to suggest that some village councils organised schools to teach the basics of reading and writing to children, although there is no evidence of systematic educational system for the masses.^[39] Vocational education was through hereditary training in which the father passed on his skills to his sons. Tamil was the medium of education for the masses; Sanskrit education was restricted to the Brahmins. Religious monasteries (matha or gatika) were centres of learning, which were supported by the government.^[40][41]

[Sunting] Penyumbanyan kebudayaan

Di bawah Chola, negara Tamil sampai ke tahap sangat bagus pada kesenian, keagamaan dan kesusasteraan. Dalam semua spera ini, zaman Chola menandakan culmination gerakan yang telah bermula pada usia awal di bawah Pallavas. Gaya seni bina bertugu dalam bentuk kuil-kuil agong dan skulptur batu dan gangsa menyampaikan fines yang tidak pernah dicapai sebelumnya di India.

Chola excel dalam aktiviti kelautan pada segi tentera dan perdagangan. Ketaklukan Kadaram (Kedah) mereka dan Srivijaya, dan persambungan perhubungan mereka dengan Empayar Cina, membernarkan mereka untuk mempengaruh budaya-budaya tempatan. Banyak contoh-contoh Hindu cultural influence yang pulih didapati hari ini di Asia Tenggara dihutangkan banyak kepada pusaka Chola.^[42]

[Sunting] Kesenian

Rencana utama: Kesenian Chola

Chola menyambung tradisi pembinaan kuil dinasti Pallava dan menyumbang banyak kepada reka bentuk kuil Dravidian. Mereka membina beberapa kuil di kerajaan mereka seperti Kuil Brihadeshvara. Aditya I membina beberapa kuil Siva disamping tepi sungai Kaveri. Kuil-kuil ini tidak dibina secara besaran sehingga penhujung abada ke-10 CE.^[43]

Pembangunan kuil menerima banyak impetus dari taklukan dan kecerdikan Rajaraja Chola dan anak lelakinya Rajendra Chola I. Kedewasaan dan kebesarannya yang mana gaya seni bina Chola telah wujud menjumpai expression pada dua kuil Tanjavur dan Gangaikondacholapuram. Siva temple of Thanjavur yang maha besar, diselesaikan pada 1009 CE, ialah sebiah peringatan sesuai kepada pencapaian waktu Rajaraja. Kuil yang terbesar dan tertinggi pada masa itu, ialah apeks gaya seni bina India Selatan.^[44]

Kuil Gangaikondcholapuram, rekaan Rajendra Chola, was intended to exceed its predecessor in every way. Diselesaikan pada kira-kira 1030 CE, hanya dua decade selepas Kuil di Thanjavur dan banyak gaya agak sama, elaborasi yang lebih besar pada rupawan attest pada lebih affluent kedudukan Empayar Chola bawah Rajendra.^[45]

Zaman Chola juga dikenali dengan skulptur dan gangsa. Diantara spesimen yang wujud di muzium di merata dunia dan di kuil-kuil India Selatan dapat dilihat dengan figure Siva dalam bentuk beraneka, seperti Vishnu dan permaisurinya Lakshmi, dan wali-wali Siva. Walaupun conforming umumnya kepada konvensi ikonografi ditubuhkan oleh tradisi panjang, tukang skulptur bekerja dengan banyak kebebasan pada abad-abad ke-11 dan ke-12 untuk menyapai grace dan grandeur. Contoh terbaik ini dapat dilihat dengan bentuk Nataraja Penari Divine.^[46]

[Sunting] Kesusasteraan

Rencana utama: Kesusasteraan Chola

The age of the Imperial Cholas (850–1200 CE) was the golden age of Tamil culture, marked by the importance of literature. Chola inscriptions cite many works, and it is a tragedy that most of them have been lost to us,^[47]

The revival of Hinduism from its nadir during the Kalabhras spurred the construction of numerous temples and these in turn generated Saiva and Viashnava devotional literature. Jain and Buddhist authors flourished as well, although in fewer numbers than in previous centuries. Jivaka-chintamani by Tirutakkadevar and Sulamani by Tolamoli are among notable by non-Hindu authors. The art of Tirutakkadevar is marked by all the qualities of great poetry.^[48] It is considered as the model for Kamban for his masterpiece Ramavatharam.

Kamban flourished during the reign of Kulothunga Chola III.^[49] His Ramavatharam is the greatest epic in Tamil Literature, and although the author states that he followed Valmiki, his work is no mere translation or simple adaptation of the Sanskrit epic: Kamban imports into his narration the colour and landscape of his own time; his description of Kosala is an idealised account of the features of the Chola country.

Jayamkondar’s masterpiece Kalingattuparani is an example of narrative poetry that draws a clear boundary between history and fictitious conventions. This describes the events during Kulothunga Chola I’s war in Kalinga and depicts not only the pomp and circumstance of war, but the gruesome details of the field. The famous Tamil poet Ottakuttan was a contemporary of Kulothunga Chola I. Ottakuttan wrote Kulothunga Solan Ula a poem extolling the virtues of the Chola king. He served at the courts of three of his successors.

The impulse to produce devotional religious literature continued into the Chola period and the arrangement of the Saiva canon into 11 books was the work of Nambi Andar Nambi, who lived close to the end of 10th century. However, relatively few works on Vaishnavite religion were composed during the Chola period, possibly because of the apparent animosity towards the Vaishnavites by the Chaluka Chola monarchs.^[50]

[Sunting] Agama

Pada umumnya, masyarakat Chola penganut Saivisme dan Hinduisme. Menurut sejarah meraka, mereka tidak diswaykan oleh kenaikan agama Buddha dan agama Jain seperti juga raja-rajanya, Pallava dan Pandya. Chola awal juga mengikut versi awal mengikut agama Hindu klassikal. Ada bukti di Purananuru untuk agama Karikala Chola di kemudian embryonic Vedic Hinduism di nagara Tamil.^[51] Kocengannan, satu lagi Chola awal, dirayaikan pada keduanya kesusasteraan Sangam dan di Saiva canon sebagai seorang wali.

Kemudian Chola juga menjadi Saivites yang kuat, walaupun ada perasaan tolerasi although terhadap sect dan agama-agama lain. Parantaka I dan Sundara Chola endowed dan membina kuil untuk keduanya Siva dan Vishnu. Rajaraja Chola I juga mempatronasikan penganut Buddha, dan membinakan Chudamani Vihara (sebuah monastari Buddha) di Nagapattinam pada permintaan raja Sailendra Srivijaya.^[52]

Semasa zaman Chalukya Chola, ada kelanjutan intoleransi terhadap Vaishnavites—terutamanya terhadap Ramanuja, ketua Vaishnavites. Intoleransi membawa persecution dan Ramanuja dibuang negeri ke negara Chalukya. Dia membawa upraising masyur yang menghasilkan kebunuha Athirajendra Chola. Kulothunga Chola II dilaporkan mengalihkan patung Vishnu dari kuil Siva di Chidambaram. Ada bukti ample, dari penulisannya, bahwa Kulothunga II adalah seorang beragama pelampau yang mahu menyakit hati camaraderie di antara penganut-penganut Hindu di negara Chola.^[53]

[Sunting] Pada kemasyuran kebudayaan

The history of the Chola dynasty has inspired many Tamil authors to produce literary and artistic creations during the last several decades. These works of popular literature have helped continue the memory of the great Cholas in the minds of the Tamil people. The most important work of this genre is the popular Ponniyin Selvan (The son of Ponni), a historical novel in Tamil written by Kalki Krishnamurthy. Written in five volumes, this narrates the story of Rajaraja Chola. Ponniyin Selvan deals with the events leading up to the ascension of Uttama Chola on the Chola throne. Kalki had cleverly utilised the confusion in the succession to the Chola throne after the demise of Sundara Chola. This book was serialised in the Tamil periodical Kalki during the mid 1950s. The serialisation lasted for nearly five years and every week its publication was awaited with great interest.

Kalki perhaps laid the foundations for this novel in his earlier historical romance Parthiban Kanavu, which deals with the fortunes of an imaginary Chola prince Vikraman who was supposed to have lived as a feudatory of the Pallava king Narasimhavarman I during the seventh century CE. The period of the story lies within the interregnum during which the Cholas were in eclipse before Vijayalaya Chola revived their fortune. Parthiban Kanavu was also serialised in the Kalki weekly during the early 1950s.

Sandilyan, another popular Tamil novelist, wrote Kadal Pura in the 1960s. It was serialised in the Tamil weekly Kumudam. Kadal Pura is set during the period when Kulothunga Chola I was in exile from the Vengi kingdom, after he was denied the throne that was rightfully his. Kadal Pura speculates the whereabouts of Kulothunga during this period. Sandilyan's earlier work Yavana Rani written in the early 1960s is based on the life of Karikala Chola. More recently, Balakumaran wrote the opus Udaiyar based on the event surrounding Rajaraja Chola's construction of the Brihadisvara Temple in Thanjavur.

There were stage productions based on the life of Rajaraja Chola during the 1950s and in 1973, Shivaji Ganesan acted in a screen adaptation of this play.

[Sunting] Nota

Templat:Middle kingdoms of India

[Sunting] Rujukan

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[Sunting] Lihat pula

• Sejarah India
• Sejarah Tamil Nadu

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Rencana ini diterjemahkan daripada sebahagian rencana Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris. Bantulah Wikipedia menterjemahkan lagi seperenggan dua. Bahan-bahan boleh didapati di en:Chola dynasty.   Terima kasih kerana membaca rencana ini.  Sumber bantuan: Kamus Dewan Bahasa