Universal values
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In philosophy, universal values is an attempt to establish a finite set of concepts that are recognized by all human beings as morally good.
The discussion of universal values is quite unsettled (often controversial), and therefore, can start from many different places: objectivism versus relativism, or deontological versus teleological, or action-based versus actor-based, etc.
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[edit] Historical discussions of universal values
The first philosophical discussions of universal values seemed to occur around the same time: Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC), Plato (427 BC – ca. 347 BC), Aristotle (384 BC – 322 BC), Mencius (372 BC – 289 BC).
[edit] The spread of universal values
Universal values are applicable at all times to all humans. The progress of time has shown some values to have enduring quality. And the advance in technology has now made it possible for values to be validated by all humans to be universal.
As human relations evolve from tribes to villages to city-states to nations to world-governing bodies, univeral values have shown to be valid under different ways of organizing humans.
[edit] Criteria for universal values
A value is universal if and only if the same value is applicable:
- 1) at all times
- in the past
- at the present
- in the future
- 2) to all humans
- different cultures
- different genders
- different religious background
- 3) under all circumstances
- among members of a family
- in work setting
- between nations
[edit] Categorizing universal values
[edit] Valued actions versus valued actors
C.E. Harris, Jr., in Applying Moral Theories (Wadsworth) and Manuel G. Velasquez, in Business Ethics: Concepts and Cases (Prentice Hall), categorize values as follows:
Valued Actions: In this taxonomy, norms are moral precepts that attempt to determine the moral standing (right or wrong) by which human actions ought to be controlled. So an action is moral or immoral based on a rule or principle. Action-based ethics attempts to classify the behavior as right or wrong. This classification includes both deontological and teleological approaches:
- Respect for Persons-treating human beings as an end and not simply as a means.
- Natural Law or human rights-promoting the values specified by the natural inclination of humans, such as preserving life and procreation, striving for knowledge, and forming bonds with other people.
- Utilitarianism-promoting the values that produce the greatest satisfaction or desires among people.
- Ethical egoism-allowing a constrained self-interest to flourish.
- Justice-promoting fairness among people, organizations, and groups.
- Ethics of care-promoting the good of others with whom we hold close and valuable relationships.
Valued Actors: In this taxonomny, virtues are moral precepts that attempt to determine the moral character (virtue or vice) of the actor, not of the action. So an actor is moral or immoral based upon the motivating virtues and/or vices. Virtues-based ethics attempts to classify character traits as right or wrong. Although these attempts are not considered normative, they do include both deontological and teleogical concepts.
[edit] Personal ethics versus group ethics
Following Colero we might divide universal values into the following categories
Personal ethics: Personal ethics arise from the our condition as social animals. Values in this taxonomy include:
- Care and compassion for others
- Respect for the autonomy of others
- Trustworthiness & honesty
- Obeying the law (with the exception of civil disobedience)
- Being just and fair
- Benevolence doing good
- Preventing harm
Professional ethics: For those of use employed and with responsibilities to others a further set of principles come into play. Often these are formally set down in a written code, but even when not, such principles are expected in our public life.
- Impartiality and objectivity
- Openness in our dealings
- Confidentiality
- Due diligence and duty of care
- Fidelity to professional responsibilities
- Avoiding potential or apparent conflict of interest
Global ethics: On a wider scale, with our growing knowledge of the world a number of further principles can be identified:
- Global justice (as reflected in international laws)
- Society before self / social responsibility
- Environmental stewardship
- Interdependence & responsibility for the ‘whole’
- Reverence for place
[edit] Contemporary issues related to universal values
Some of the most contentious debates today are also debates over universal values: the abortion debate, capital punishment debate, globalization and its backlash.
[edit] See also
- Ethics
- Ethic of reciprocity
- Confucian theory of ethics
- Ethics in religion
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
- Human Rights
- Globalization
- Value system
