Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl
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The legend of Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is debated by anthropologists studying the ancient civilizations of Mesoamerica. The historical and mythological representations of Ce Acatl Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl continued to play a formative role in later Mesoamerican cultures and are still part of contemporary beliefs. Ce Acatl (or Nacxitl as he is often referred to) was supposedly a priestly ruler of the ancient Toltec state of Tullan, where he assumed the name of Quetzalcoatl (literally meaning "winged serpent") and benevolently bestowed all great things unto human kind. He brought to the Toltec arts, agriculture, music, poetry and religion which they then dispersed to all other civilizations (Florescano 1999:28). For many years he set the example of the perfect life for his vassals. He lived in piety and celibacy; this continued until he was maliciously forced into exile where he roamed the land for several more years, naming all that he saw. His journey was a quest for his divinely inspired resting place, Tlapallan, from whence he, or his kin, vowed to return and reclaim the throne of the Toltec.
The myth itself is represented in six major, more or less complete, works and hundreds of partial and anecdotal cases. The tale has been reworked and retold dozens of times with each generation re-creating a part of the myth to include their own culture (Florescano 1999:1). The full story can not, however, be told without at least an introduction to the sacred being from which Ce Acatl took his name.
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[edit] Quetzalcoatl: the divine being
Ehecatl Quetzalcoatl was one of the "Creator Gods" from which a new age of the universe began. Aztec religions believed that time was broken into distinct eras, each punctuated by a massive cataclysm that ended all prior existence and begat new heirs (Florescano 1999:35). They believed that Ehecatl Quetzalcoatl was born of two (unnamed) parental gods who resided in the highest order of the heavens. They endowed him with the items represented in his iconography and sent him into the lower levels of the universe accompanied by two other entities, one of "The House of the Sun" and the other from the "House of Xipe" (Florescano 1999:25). Ehecatl then separated the two "houses", creating a middle ground between the sun and the underworld; thus he spawned the "Tierra (land, earth, terrain)" as the geographical center of the universe and began the fifth age of mankind on Earth (Carrasco 2000:78). For doing this he is often represented as a dualistic combination of opposites. He takes on the form of the feathered serpent (representing the heavens and terrestrial land), he is revered as a great warrior but also the progenitor of the arts and, in some interpretations, as a combination of man and woman. He was endowed with the powers of song, writing, poetry, war, sacrifice and religion. These traits would be transposed onto Ce Acatl and passed on to the peoples inhabiting the newly created earth (Florescano 1999:28).
[edit] Mixcoatl, father of Ce Acatl
The stories of Ce Acatl's birth are no less spectacular than the powers he was to inherit. The most prevalent interpretation of his birth begins with a story telling the origin of his father, Mixcoatl. At the dawn of the fifth age of humans the gods created 400 Mixcohua (Chichimeca) to appease the sacrificial needs of the cosmos (Nicholson 2001:5). They lived in relative paradise and were only required to hunt and sacrifice butterflies, birds, snakes and other small animals. However, they eventually neglected their duties and begun to revel in the paradise created for them. They neglected the weapons the gods had given them and spent their time drinking and fornicating. The gods responded by creating five more humans and giving them weapons with which to kill the other 400 as sacrifices. Here is the first major deviation of the six primary tales. Some claim that these five would eventually populate the land, while others say simply that, in the battle between the 400 original and their five assassins, there were only a few survivors. In any case, the incident established the traditions of war and human sacrifice for the gods (Nicholson 2001:4-7).
Mixcoatl, one of these five survivors, then traveled the lands of Mesoamerica as a great warrior. During this time the land became populated by primitive peoples scattered across the landscape. Accounts about Ce Acatl's conception vary. Some suggest that Mixcoatl conquered Chimalman's (Ce Acatl's mother) people and took her as a wife; others say that Mixcoatl was not able to defeat Chimalman and that she was simply chased into hiding where she consumed an emerald (or other precious stone) that would eventually impregnate her with Ce Acatl (Carrasco 2000:79). In all cases Mixcoatl is represented as a conquering warrior and Chimalman is shown as a chaste, peaceful woman who miraculously conceives a child and dies shortly after. The dualistic elements of Ehecatl Quetzalcoatl that are already present in the story of his birth remain ubiquitous throughout all versions of the story (Nicholson 2001:13-57).
[edit] Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, King of Tula
There exist few accounts of Ce Acatl's early childhood. However, all information agrees that he proved his worth first as a warrior and then as a priest to the people of Tollan. In many versions he created the idyllic civilization of Tula by introducing all the great things, which the deity Ehecatl was known for, to the small bands of people already inhabiting that area (Carrasco 2000:64-65). He was then said to have built up the grandest civilization to have ever existed. Food was so plentiful that it was nearly worthless; this allowed the population to concentrate on arts, poetry, literature and construction of the great temples in Tollan. Most importantly, Ce Acatl (hereafter referred to as Topiltzin "our prince" Quetzalcoatl) ascended to power. He dispelled the traditions of the past and ended all human sacrifice during his reign. The translations claim that he loved his people so much he insisted that they only meet the ancient standards of the gods; he had the Toltec offer them snakes, birds and other animals, but not humans, as sacrifices. To prove his penance, to atone for the earlier sins of his people, and to appease the debt owed to the gods (created by lack of tribute of human blood) he also created the cult of the serpent. This cult insisted that the practitioners bleed themselves to satiate the needs of the netherworld. It also demanded that all priests remain celibate and did not allow intoxication of any kind (representing the two major sins to which the original 400 Mixcohua succumbed). These edicts and his personal purity of spirit caused Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl to be beloved by his vassals and revered for generations. The representation of the priestly ruler became so important that subsequent rulers would claim direct descent from Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl in order to legitimize their monarchies.
[edit] The fall of Tollan
Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl's rule, however, was not to last forever. The downfall of Tula is the most widely speculated controversy. Accounts vary greatly in their particulars about the rationale for leaving Tula. Many accounts are further marred by a deliberate attempt to write the story of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl into the local history of each author. The mythology behind the fall of Tollan does have one constant theme that remains throughout all versions: Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was forced out of his kingdom after being tricked into depravity by some supernatural forces. In the most general accounts, the Toltec ruler is under constant pressure from the gods who, not entirely satisfied by his refusal to sacrifice humans, force him to resign as ruler. In one tale Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is divinely inspired to stay in Tollan until the completion of a great temple (another four years) after which he decides it is time to meet the gods' request. On his own accord he gathered his belongings and scattered them throughout the Mesoamerican world on his journey to the mythical resting place of Tlapallan. In more detailed accounts Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl is tricked by his constant antagonist Tezcatlipoca (another god or demigod who has supernatural powers that oppose Quetzalcoatl). Often his trickery is overt. In many accounts he manifests demons that entice Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl and the Toltec into wars, causing thousands of casualties before the demons are finally killed (Nicholson 2001:10). Other records also include demons, or supernatural humans that challenge Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl to contests in which the competition is so ferocious it actually spills into the streets of the town and devastates the city.
The six primary sources have two very different interpretations of the nature of the destruction of Tollan. In some of these records Tollan isn't destroyed by demonic forces but stands until Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl eventually abandons the city after he is tricked into drinking a poisonous concoction that inebriates him (Nicholson 2001:16, 29-39, 44-47). In these versions Topiltzin is antagonized by three men, Tezcatlipoca, Ihuimecatl and Tollecatl. These three men are represented as evil uncles, powerful sorcerers and even demons taking human form, depending on the version and translation. They abuse their powers (or relationship to Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl) to coerce Topiltzin to drink a "magical" concoction that they claim will give him renewed youth and strength, which instead intoxicates him enough that he breaks his vows of priesthood and is forced to leave the position of ruler. Without his guidance, Tollan's new ruler (Huemac) is not able to appease both the gods and the Toltec people. With neither faction co-operating the city slowly degrades until it is abandoned (Nicholson 2001:10-12).
[edit] Topiltzin's legacy
The tales end with Topiltzin traveling across Mesoamerica founding small communities and giving all the features their respective names. The Aztecs believed that Topiltzin's search for his holy resting place eventually led him across the sea to the east, from whence he vowed to return one day and reclaim Cholula (Chimalpahin, Motolinia, Ixtlilxochitl, Codice Rios). Other sources insist that Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl would not return but that he would send representatives to warn or possibly pass judgment on those inhabiting the land (Las Casas, Mendieta, Veytia). Aztec rulers used the myth of the great founder of Tollan to help legitimize their claims to seats of power. They claimed that, as the direct descendants of the Priest-King, they had the right and duty to hold his place until the day Topiltzin would return. The myths would prove to have a lasting effect on the Aztec empire. They rationalized the mass sacrifices that were already destabilizing the empire when the first Spaniards arrived. The stories of Topiltzin further expedited the collapse of the Aztec nation by sheer coincidence; they bore incredible likeness to the arrival of the first Spaniards. The Aztec may have truly believed that they were seeing the return of the famous priest when the white-haired Hernán Cortés landed on their shores in 1519. He came from across the sea to the east, wearing brilliant armor (as the deity Quetzalcoatl is oft depicted) accompanied by four men (possibly believed to be the other four progenitors of the Mesoamerican people that survived the massacre before coming to earth or Topiltzin’s messengers). The Spanish arrival terrified the ruling class. They feared they would be exposed as frauds and, at the very least, lose their ruling status to Topiltzin. Conversely the oppressed Aztec people, taxed and forced to wage war for sacrifices, hoped that these arrivals would bring a new era of peace and enlightenment (Carrasco 2000:145-152). Ultimately the Aztecs' rulers still lost their status and the Aztec people were not freed from oppression.
As the Spanish conquered Mesoamerica they destroyed countless works concerning and pre-dating the Aztecs. The story of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl was almost destroyed as the conquistadors forced the few remaining traces into hiding. Only relatively recently have accurate translations of much of the information about Topiltzin been made available. Unfortunately, even the comparatively complete accounts are but a portion of the story. Much of the information varies from region to region and has changed through the course of time (as myths are apt to do). While the original story may be permanently lost to the ravages of time the articles that remain have allowed us to piece together a multi-cultural version of Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl’s life that sheds some light onto the man and the myth. The stories show us how myth and history have become interweaved into local culture and traditions. They have been re-created over the centuries and, in each reincarnation, have transformed part of the local history.
[edit] References
- Baldwin, Niel (1998). Legends of a Plumed Serpent: Biography of a Mexican God. New York: Public Affairs/BBS.
- Brundage, Burr Cartwright (1982). The Phoenix of the Western World: Quetzalcoatl and the Sky Religion. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
- Burland, C.A. (1990). The Aztecs: Gods and Fate in Ancient Mexico. London: Orbis Publishing.
- Carrasco, David (2000). Quetzalcoatl and the Irony of Empire: Myths are Prophecies in the Aztec Tradition. Boulder, Colorado: University Press of Colorado.
- Florescano, Enrique (1999). The Myth of Quetzalcoatl. Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press.
- Nicholson, Henry B. (2001). Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl: The Once and Future King of the Toltec. Boulder: University Press of Colorado.
