Politics of Puerto Rico
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
| Puerto Rico |
 This article is part of the series: |
|
|
|
Other countries • Politics Portal |
Politics of Puerto Rico takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic system, whereby the Governor of Puerto Rico is head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. Puerto Rico is a Commonwealth [1] in political union with the United States. The Government of Puerto Rico, established by the Constitution (ratified March 3, 1952; approved by the United States Congress on July 3, 1952; effective on July 25, 1952), consists of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
[edit] Constitutional developments
In 1950, the U.S. Congress afforded Puerto Ricans the right to organize a constitutional convention, contingent on the results of a referendum, where the electorate would determine if they wished to organize their own government pursuant to a constitution of their own choosing. Puerto Ricans expressed their support for this measure in a 1951 referendum, which gave voters a yes-or-no choice for the commonwealth status, defined as a ‘permanent association with a federal union’. A second referendum was held to approve the constitution, which was adopted in 1952. Prior to approving the new constitution, the Constitutional Convention specified the name by which the body politic would be known. The convention on February 4 of 1952 approved resolution 22 which chose in English the word “Commonwealth”, meaning a “politically organized community” or “State”, which is simultaneously connected by a compact or treaty to another political system. Unable to translate the word into Spanish, the convention adopted a translation inspired by the Irish Free State called “Estado Libre Asociado” (ELA) to represent the compact between the people of Puerto Rico and the United States, which could be translated into English as “Associated Free State” or as "Free Associated State".
Under the 1952 constitution, Puerto Rico is a Commonwealth (use some benefits of the U.S.) and is permitted a degree of autonomy similar to that of a state of the Union. Puerto Rico does not have voting representation in the U.S. Congress; neither does it have any electors in the U.S. Electoral College, and therefore Puerto Rican citizens do not participate in the U.S. Presidential elections, although political parties can, and do, have state-like voting delegations to the nominating conventions of both major national parties. A non-voting Resident Commissioner is elected by the residents of Puerto Rico to the U.S. Congress acting as a delegate of the people of Puerto Rico.
Residents of the island do not pay federal income tax, but all commerce is controlled and highly taxed by the U.S. before importation or exportation. Puerto Ricans also pay federal payroll taxes to the U.S., which have a particularly heavy impact on Puerto Rico's relatively low-income workers. Island residents pay social security taxes and federal taxes other than income but they have limited or no access to several key federal programs. Puerto Rico is excluded from Supplemental Security Income (SSI). For Medicaid, Puerto Rico receives less than 15% of the funding it would be allotted as a state. For Medicare, Puerto Rico pays fully but only receives partial benefits. As statutory U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans are subject to military service and most federal laws.
For the past fifty years, a single issue has dominated Puerto Rican politics: its political status vis-à-vis the United States. A Commonwealth associated to the U.S. since 1952, Puerto Rico today is torn by profound ideological rifts, as represented by its political parties, which stand for the current relationship or the two distinct future political scenarios: the status quo, statehood, and independence. The Popular Democratic Party (PPD) seeks to maintain or improve the current status, the New Progressive Party (PNP) seeks to fully incorporate Puerto Rico as a U.S. state, and the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP) seeks national independence.
In 1967, the Legislative Assembly tested political interests of the Puerto Rican people by passing a plebiscite Act that allowed a vote on the status of Puerto Rico. This constituted the first plebiscite by the Legislature for a choice on three status options. Puerto Rican leaders had lobbied for such an opportunity repeatedly, in 1898, 1912, 1914, 1919, 1923, 1929, 1932, 1939, 1943, 1944, 1948, 1956, and 1960. Following the plebiscite, efforts in the 1970s to enact legislation to address the status issue died in Congressional committees. In a 1993, in which Congress played a more substantial role, and in a 1998 plesbicite the status quo, Commonwealth status, was upheld. [1]
[edit] Puerto Rico's political status and international law
Although Puerto Rico is, politically speaking, an unincorporated territory of the United States classified as a Commonwealth, Puerto Ricans and people from other nations refer to Puerto Rico as a país, the Spanish word for country. This is a very common and accepted international status given to all dependent territories, also called dependent "states" by the United Nations although on many occasions it has been thought of as a possibility that Puerto Rico would become the 51st State of the United States of America. The United Nations has intervened in the past to evaluate the legitimacy of Puerto Rico's political status, to ensure that the island's government structure complies with the standards of self-government that constitute the basic tenets of the United Nations Charter, its covenants, and its principles of international law.
On November 27, 1953, shortly after establishment of the Commonwealth, the General Assembly of the UN approved Resolution 748, removing Puerto Rico’s classification as a non-self-governing territory under article 73(e) of the Charter of the United Nations. The resolution garnered a favorable vote of fewer than 40% of the General Assembly, with over 60% abstaining or voting against it (20 to 16, with 18 abstentions). This resolution has not been revoked by the UN even though the political status is still debated in many international forums.
For a territory to be deemed self-governing, the United Nations require:
- "(a) Legislative representation. Representation without discrimination in the central legislative organs, on the same basis as other inhabitants and regions [within the governing nation].
- (b) Participation of the population. Effective participation of population in the government of the territory
- (1) Is there an adequate and appropriate electoral and representation system?
- (2) Is this electoral system conducted without direct or indirect interference from a foreign government?
- (c) Citizenship. Citizenship without discrimination on the same basis as other inhabitants
- (d) Government officials. Eligibility of officials from the territory for all public offices of the central authority, by appointment or election, on the same basis as those from other parts of the country".
The General Assembly did not apply its list of criteria to Puerto Rico for determining whether or not self-governing status had been achieved. In fact, in a 1996 report on a Puerto Rico status political bill, the U.S. House Committee on Resources stated that Puerto Rico’s current status “does not meet the criteria for any of the options for full self government.” The House Committee concluded that Puerto Rico is still an unincorporated territory of the United States under the territorial clause, that the establishment of local self-government with the consent of the people can be unilaterally revoked by U.S. Congress, and that U.S. Congress can also withdraw at any time the American citizenship now enjoyed by the residents of Puerto Rico as long as it achieves a legitimate Federal purpose, in a manner reasonably related to that purpose.
According to a report by the President’s Task Force on Puerto Rico’s Status, released in December 2005, it is not possible “to bind future Congresses to any particular arrangement for Puerto Rico as a Commonwealth”. This determination was based on articles in the U.S. Constitution regarding territories. The governor of Puerto Rico promised to challenge the task force report. On January 4, 2006, Governor Anibal Acevedo Vilá announced the steps that he and the governing Popular Democratic Party will take in the following months. The historic resolution denounces the task force as a political fraud that represents a threat to democracy and is in violation of the basic agreements held between the people of Puerto Rico and the United States since 1952[2][3]. It also stated a compromise to challenge the task force report and validate the current status in all international forums including the United Nations. Also rejects any colonial or territorial status as a status option and vows to keep working for the enhanced commonwealth status that was approved by the PPD in 1998 which included:
- (a) Sovereignty
- (b) An association based on respect and dignity between both nations
- (c) Common citizenship
As part of the PDP's strategy, a bill supporting its position was introduced in the United States Senate by two senators who have traditionally been identified with Puerto Rico, Sens. Edward M. Kennedy (D-MA) and Bob Menendez (D-NJ) and two senators whose interest in all matters Puerto Rican was up to then unknown, Sens. Burr (R-NC) and Lott (R-MS). Since its introduction, the bill has not attracted any other co-sponsors, in spite of heavy lobbying on the part of Puerto Rico's Executive Branch lobbyists. A bipartisan Senate bill supporting the implementation of the White House report recommendations is expected to be filed shortly by Sens. Martinez (R-FL) and Salazar (D-CO).
On the other hand, Resident Commissioner Luis Fortuño (R-PR) and Rep. Jose E. Serrano (D-NY) filed a bipartisan House bill to implement the recommendations, which has been cosponsored by over 60 Republicans and over 40 Democrats, significantly more cosponsors than the Young Bill which cleared the House in 1998. The House Committee on Resources called a hearing on the subject on April 27, 2006, signalling a greater degree of interest than previously anticipated.
[edit] Executive branch
The head of government is led by the Governor of Puerto Rico, who is popularly elected for a 4 year term.
| Main office holders | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Office | Name | Party | Since |
| Governor | Aníbal Acevedo Vilá | PPD | 2 January 2005 |
[edit] Legislative branch
The legislative branch consists of a bicameral Legislative Assembly formed by a Senate and the House of Representatives, with 27 and 51 members respectively, elected every 4 years. Likewise, every 4 years Puerto Ricans elect one Resident Commissioner, a nonvoting representative of the U.S. House of Representatives who is allowed to serve in committees, and who primarily serves as a process observer for the Puerto Rican government.
[edit] Political parties and elections
- The following election results include names of political parties. See for additional information about parties the List of political parties in Puerto Rico. An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in Puerto Rico.
| Candidates - Parties | Votes | % | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Aníbal Acevedo Vilá - Popular Democratic Party | 963,303 | 48.40 | |
| Pedro Rosselló - New Progressive Party | 959,737 | 48.22 | |
| Rubén Berríos Martínez - Puerto Rican Independence Party | 54,551 | 2.74 | |
| Others | 12,781 | 0.64 | |
| Total (turnout 81.7 %) | 100.0 | ||
| Source: (Spanish) CEEPUR | |||
| Parties | District Votes |
District % |
District Seats |
At Large Votes |
At Large % |
At Large Seats |
Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| New Progressive Party (Partido Nuevo Progresista) | 936,030 | 48.4 | 26 | 886,151 | 46.3 | 6 | 32 | |
| Popular Democratic Party (Partido Popular Democrático) | 901,326 | 46.6 | 14 | 824,472 | 43.1 | 4 | 18 | |
| Puerto Rican Independence Party (Partido Independentista Puertorriqueño) | 77,289 | 4.0 | 0 | 186,197 | 9.7 | 1 | 1 | |
| Civic Alternative Party (Partido Alternativa Ciudadana) | 1,682 | 0.1 | 0 | - | - | - | - | |
| Civil Action Party (Partido Acción Civil) | 423 | 0.0 | 0 | - | - | - | - | |
| Others | 1,161 | 0.1 | 0 | 457 | 0.0 | 0 | - | |
| Total | 1,917,911 | 100.0 | 40 | 1,897,277 | 100.0 | 11 | 51 | |
| Blank and Null Votes | 17,245 | 0.9 | - | 17,245 | 0.9 | - | - | |
| Total votes cast | 1,935,156 | - | - | 1,914,522 | - | - | - | |
| Source: (Spanish) Elections Puerto Rico | ||||||||
| Parties | District Votes |
District % |
District Seats |
At Large Votes |
At Large % |
At Large Seats |
Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| New Progressive Party (Partido Nuevo Progresista) | 1,845,204 | 48.6 | 11 | 845,228 | 44.3 | 6 | 17 | |
| Popular Democratic Party (Partido Popular Democrático) | 1,768,374 | 46.6 | 5 | 767,626 | 40.3 | 4 | 9 | |
| Puerto Rican Independence Party (Partido Independentista Puertorriqueño) | 160,632 | 4.2 | 0 | 178,541 | 9.4 | 1 | 1 | |
| Independence Movement of the Eastern Region (Movimiento Independiente Region Este) | 2,936 | 0.1 | 0 | - | - | - | - | |
| Independent | - | - | - | 97,673 | 5.1 | 0 | - | |
| Others | 826 | 0.0 | 0 | 297 | 0.0 | 0 | - | |
| Total (turnout 81.7 %) | 3,777,972 | 100.0 | 16 | 1,889,365 | 100.0 | 11 | 27 | |
| Blank and Null Votes | 17,245 | 0.4 | - | 17,245 | 0.7 | - | - | |
| Total votes cast | 3,795,217 | - | - | 1,906,610 | - | - | - | |
| Source: (Spanish) Elections Puerto Rico | ||||||||
[edit] Judicial branch
Puerto Rico has a territorial judiciary including a Supreme Court, Appellate Court, and a Court of First Instance composed of two sections: a Superior Court and a Municipal Court (justices for all these courts appointed by the Governor with the consent of the Senate). The legal system of Puerto Rico is based on the Spanish civil code. All Puerto Rican laws and judicial opinions are in the Spanish language.
However, Puerto Ricans are also subject to federal laws that are drafted in English (in the form of the United States Code and the Code of Federal Regulations), and are under the jurisdiction of the American federal courts, which conduct their proceedings in English. Thus, Puerto Rican lawyers must be fully bilingual in order to effectively represent their clients in both the territorial and federal legal systems.
[edit] Post 1898 political history and conditions
A year after the United States invasion of the island, Dr. José Celso Barbosa embraced the idea of annexation as a U.S. state as a solution to the colonial situation and founded the Puerto Rican Republican Party in 1899.
Dr. Barbosa had been the leader in the Autonomist Party that favored a republican government for Spain. For much of the 19th Century, the principal parties favored Puerto Rico becoming one of the Spanish provinces in equal footing with the rest of the provinces; such a standing was given twice, under liberal governments, but it was revoked as many times when the monarchs regained their power. In this context, Dr. Barbosa returned to the original idea of equal footing, but this time with the constituent members of the American Republic.
During the last twenty years under the Spanish flag, the local parties, with the exception of the Partido Incondicional Español (Unconditional Spanish Party) embraced the idea of autonomy. The Incondicionales accepted whatever Spain had for Puerto Rico and the Crown duly recognized their support by giving aristocratic titles to the leaders.
The great leader of the Autonomist Party, of which Barbosa and Muños-Rivera were members, was Román Baldorioty de Castro, who followed closely the Canadian model developed by the British and supported a similar development for Puerto Rico under Spain. Before Baldorioty de Castro, other leaders had mentioned the possibility of autonomy, generally as an answer to the Spanish insistence in instituting special laws to govern the colonies.
At about the same time that the Republican Party of Puerto Rico was organized under the U.S., Luis Muñoz-Rivera organized the Federalist Party. Like the Republican Party it supported statehood for Puerto Rico.
Muñoz-Rivera had been the leader of the monarchist faction of the autonomists, not truly out of conviction but because Spain was a monarchy. Through this support he was able to get Sagasta, whose party was not in power in the early 1890's, to support an autonomous government for Puerto Rico.
At about this time, the U.S. was pressuring Spain to grant autonomy to Cuba, but the Spaniards dilly-dallied until a year before the Spanish-American War. Sagasta was then Prime Minister and he had made a compact with the Islanders to give them autonomy. Autonomy was granted, not through an act of the Cortes (the Legislative branch of Spain), but through an edict of the monarch.
Bickering between Muñoz-Rivera and Barbosa did not allow the autonomous government to be established immediately. Sagasta demanded that they put their differences aside and both, with their respective groups, became part of the first autonomous government of Puerto Rico immediately before the War.
The Republican Party won the elections in 1900 and again in 1902. The new government of Puerto Rico, organized under the [Foraker Act] of 1900, was a mixture of the British and the American system, somewhat similar to that established for the territory of Orleans after the Louisiana Purchase. The House of Delegates was elected directly by the voters (male, propertied)and the equivalent to the Senate was the Cabinet appointed by the Governor and by the President of the United States.
Muñoz-Rivera exiled himself to New York after the defeat, but returned once the Federalist Party was no longer useful and joined Rosendo Matienzo-Cintrón in organizing the Union Party. Also with them was José de Diego.
Matienzo Cintrón had been a Republican, supporting statehood. But two years into the new government, he realized that statehood would not be granted and the desired equality as citizens was not feasible under the United States. He brought with him other former Republicans and practically all of Muñoz-Rivera's Federalists into a party that was to bring about the union of all political groups.
He was remarkably successful. They won the elections of 1904 and all subsequent elections until the 20's, when another defection of Republicans allowed for the creation of yet another party bringing into it persons supporting a status change.
The Union, initially supported statehood or an autonomous government. The it included independence. In fact, Matienzo-Cintrón went from statehood advocate to autonomist to independence advocate as a result of eight years of American civil government in Puerto Rico.
The Union Party, from the very beginning, was against the colonial government established under the Foraker Act. Rosendo Matienzo Cintrón, Manuel Zeno Gandía, Luis Llorens Torres, Eugenio Benítez Castaño, and Pedro Franceschi started to organize the Independence Party in 1912 which paved the path for similar movements.
The Union Party quickly gained the attention of the colonial governors, all Republicans, who were willing to work closely with them because of their control of the House of Delegates. The local Republicans protested bitterly and, once took statehood out of the platform, not bringing it back until the early 20s.
Many in the Union Party leadership were lawyers who had contracts with the sugar operations recently bought and enlarged by the new American owners, thus establishing a close relationship between the nascent middle classes and the American corporate interests.
The Nationalist Party (NP) was founded in the year 1922. It strongly criticized the American colonial regime for its menace to the Spanish and Latin American roots of the Puerto Rican culture. It also advocated for complete independence. The NP began to grow with the leadership of Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos, who was later jailed as a subversive leader by the colonial regime. In an unauthorized march by the NP in the city of Ponce 18 nationalists were killed by the police, this would be known later as the Ponce Massacre.
[edit] After 1940
Luis Muñoz Marín founded the Popular Democratic Party (PPD) in 1940. Their slogan was "Pan, Tierra y Libertad" (Bread, Land and Liberty). The party favored independence for the country in its initial stages but social and economic reform were priorities in their political agenda.
The Puerto Rican Independence Party was formed six years later by dissidents who saw the PPD moving away from the ideal of independence. During that period, the colonial regime appointed the first Puerto Rican governor, Jesús T. Piñero, until 1948 when the people elected Luis Muñoz Marín, the first elected governor.
The years or 1944-1948 were crucial ones in the direction of the country. Luis Muñoz Marín shifted his goals from independence to state-like autonomy to accommodate better economic circumstances. This led to the U.S. congress to enact the Law 600 of 1950 which led to the Congressional approval of a local constitution drafted by a Constituent Assembly elected by Puerto Rico and the renaming of the United States unincorporated territory of Puerto Rico as the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, using the same official name as the commonweealths of Kentucky, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and Virginia. The alternative pro-independence Tydings bill had languished in congress.
[edit] After 1968
The New Progressive Party (PNP) was founded in 1968 by Luis A. Ferré, that same year the PNP won the elections. The party saw the ideology of annexation to the U.S. as a civil rights issue. The creation of the New Progressive Party polarized the political arena to a great degree as radical independence groups were formed in the 1970s and the Puerto Rican Socialist Party (PSP), a Marxist and Cuban friendly party, was created. Two of the radical groups were labeled as terrorist groups by the U.S. government, Los Macheteros and the Armed Forces of National Liberation (FALN). These groups were viewed by many pro-independence followers as freedom fighters.
In 1972 the PNP lost to the Popular Democratic Party (PPD). Rafael Hernández Colón became the undisputed leader of the PPD at age 36. He was, as the fourth elected governor, in favor of adding more powers to the commonwealth status. One of his projects was the Puerto Rican owned marine transportation. In order to control the costs of the marine transport in Puerto Rico, the marine company Is Land was bought to form Navieras of Puerto Rico in 1974.
The fifth governor was Carlos Romero Barcelo, a fierce supporter of the pro-U.S. annexation ideology. He was beloved by the PNP and strongly disliked by the opposition. Under his administration, section 936 of the U.S. Internal Revenue Tax Code was implemented as an economic incentive. This allowed American companies to create profit in the island without paying taxes. His administration was shadowed by the Maravilla Hill affair, where two independence activists were killed by undercover police agents. This created a Watergate like scandal that was later investigated by the Senate.
In 1980, Romero Barcelo remained as Governor by a controversial 0.2% margin, but lost the Senate and House of Representatives to the PPD. Independence radical groups placed bombs on 11 jet fighters in 1981 in the U.S. base Muñiz. Rafael Hernández Colón became the head of government for the second time in 1984 and stayed in power until 1991.
Pedro Rosselló became the sixth Governor in 1992. He pushed the political status dilemma in Washington, D.C. and sponsored two referendums, but these became non-binding. While he was elected to a second term, his last four years were met with mounting allegations of corruption. The Speaker of the House, Edison Misla Aldarondo (PNP/NPP) was jailed as well as many members of Rosello's party. Most of the corruption allegations were based on extortion and appropiation of public funds. This led his party to losing the 2000 election and the Governorship when he ran again in 2004.
In 2000 Sila María Calderón (PPD) was elected becoming the first female governor of Puerto Rico.
In 2004 Anibal Acevedo Vila (PPD) was elected governor by 3,000 votes, his party lost both houses of the legislature.
[edit] Political pressure groups and leaders
- Socialist Movement of Workers
- Socialist Front
- Armed Forces for National Liberation (FALN for its abbreviation in Spanish)
- Armed Forces of Popular Resistance
- Boricua Popular Army (also known as Los Macheteros)
- Volunteers of the Puerto Rican Revolution
- The National Hostosian Congress
- The New Puerto Rican Independence Movement
- Hostosian National Independence Movement
[edit] Political status
Puerto Rico is a U.S. territory which has been given self-governing "Commonwealth" status. (The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, located in the western Pacific Ocean, has a similar relationship to the United States.) What this means has never been absolutely clear; however, Puerto Rico has more latitude over its internal affairs than the U.S. territories of Guam, the U.S. Virgin Islands, or American Samoa.
Puerto Rico's current constitutional arrangements are the result of the Congressional statutes of 1952 that modified the organic laws governing the federal relations between the territory and the United States, so presumably it could become independent in the same way as the Philippines did in 1945, a right not possessed by the states of the United States. Alternatively, it could be admitted as a state of the United States by a vote of the U.S. Congress, in the same way that Hawaii was in 1959.
Puerto Rico has approximately the same degree of authority over its internal affairs as an American state. The United States federal government controls interstate trade, foreign commerce, customs, aviation and navigation, immigration, currency, all military and naval matters, radio and television communications, mining and minerals, highways, the postal system, social security, and other areas generally controlled by the federal government in the United States. United States courts have the final say over the constitutionality of Puerto Rican laws. Puerto Rico may not conclude treaties with other sovereign states, although it does belong to some international bodies.
Puerto Rico's elected governor and legislature control all other internal affairs. The major differences between Puerto Rico and the states are greater financial autonomy (it levies its own taxes and is exempt from the Internal Revenue Code), its lack of voting representation in either house of the Congress and the ineligibility of Puerto Rican residents to vote in presidential elections.
The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party denounced the Constitution and Muñoz Marín support as a sham, and attacked the Governor's mansion (La Fortaleza) in 1950, the Blair House, and the United States House of Representatives in 1954. Twenty-three people were killed and more than 50 were injured. Governor Muñoz Marín inaugurated the new status called Estado Libre Asociado —or Free Associated State in English— and raised the Puerto Rican flag along with the national anthem of Puerto Rico for the first time on July 25, 1952 — date in which Puerto Ricans celebrate the Constitution of Puerto Rico (see also: Holidays in Puerto Rico).
During its 8th session, the United Nations General Assembly recognized Puerto Rico's self government in November 27, 1953 with Resolution 748 (VIII).
Puerto Ricans have been U.S. citizens since 1917 by a statutory law called the Jones-Shafroth Act (or Jones Act) which can be modified at any time by the U.S. Congress (However, the citizenship of current U.S. citizens could not be revoked, only the status of those born in Puerto Rico in the future). They are free to live anywhere within the U.S. without a visa. Similarly, all U.S. citizens have the right to migrate to Puerto Rico without a visa. Puerto Ricans have no voting representation in the U.S. Congress and do not vote for the U.S. president. They don't pay federal income tax, but pay Social Security taxes. Puerto Rico has an elected Resident Commissioner, who sits in Congress as a delegate of the people of Puerto Rico — the delegate may speak in the United States House of Representatives and serve in committees, but may not vote.
When asked to choose between independence, statehood, or continuation of the present status with enhanced powers, as proposed by the Popular Democratic Party, Puerto Ricans have voted to remain a commonwealth. However, dissatisfaction with the current status is evident. The issue is still being debated and is on the agenda of all the political parties and civil society groups. Many pro-commonwealth leaders within the PPD are proposing an Associated Republic or Free Association similar to that in the Marshall Islands or Palau. The left wing of the PPD has achieved some success in driving the party to a less conservative and more nationalistic stance.
[edit] Vieques protests
Main article: Navy-Vieques protests
On April 19, 1999 two United States Marine Corps jets in training exercises from Roosevelt Roads Naval Base dropped bombs over the military range at the U.S. base on the island of Vieques, missing their targets. David Sanes, a civilian working as security guard, was killed. Later in the month protestors began occupying the U.S. Navy range at Vieques and civil disobedience became a widespread movement inside the U.S. base. Gov. Pedro Rosselló denounced the Sanes incident, and supported the end of the military exercises. 100,000 people marched in the March for the Peace in Vieques, in the spring of 2000, in San Juan to demand the end of the military exercises and the use of the base for military purposes.
Sila María Calderón became the seventh head of government in 2001 and the first female governor. She supported the exit of the U.S. Navy and permitted the continuation of the civil disobedience camps inside the bombing range while the press reported wide ecological damage to the environment of the island, and presented studies that showed higher cancer rates in residents of Vieques, as compared to the main island.
Later that year the U.S. government suspended military exercises in Vieques and in May of 2003 closed the base. The land is expected to return back to the Vieques municipality. More than 1,500 people were arrested for civil disobedience, including leaders of the three political parties and members of the Catholic Church, from 1999 to 2003. On July 25, 2003, Governor Calderón announced her support for a new process outside the political parties that would deal with the status dilema in 2004.
[edit] International organization participation
- Caricom (observer)
- ECLAC (associate)
- FAO (associate)
- ITUC
- Interpol (subbureau)
- IOC
- WFTU
- WHO (associate)
[edit] See also
[edit] External links
- Commonwealth of Puerto Rico
- Governor
- Resident Commissioner (U.S. House)
- Puerto Rico House of Representatives
- Puerto Rico Senate
- Commonwealth Elections Commission (CEEPUR)
[edit] References
- Central Intelligence Agency (USA). The World Factbook (2003). United States of America.
