Ion thruster

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An ion engine test

An ion thruster (or ion drive), one of several types of spacecraft propulsion, uses beams of ions — electrically charged atoms or molecules— for propulsion. The precise method for accelerating the ions may vary, but all designs take advantage of the charge-to-mass ratio of ions to accelerate them to very high velocities using a high electric field. Ion thrusters are therefore able to achieve high specific impulse, reducing the amount of reaction mass required, but increasing the amount of power required compared to chemical rockets. Ion thrusters can deliver one order of magnitude greater propellant efficiency than traditional liquid fuel rocket engines, but are constrained to very low accelerations by the power/weight ratios of available power systems.

The first ion thrusters, known as Kaufman-type ion thrusters, were developed by Harold R. Kaufman, working for NASA in the 1960s, and were based on the Duoplasmatron.

1 Types of ion thruster
2 General design
3 Energy usage
4 Thrust
5 Lifespan
6 Missions
7 See also
8 References
9 External links

[edit] Types of ion thruster

There are many types of ion thruster currently in development; some are currently in use, while others have not yet been installed in spacecraft. Some of the types of ion thruster are:

Other forms of high-efficiency electric thruster have also been proposed; see spacecraft propulsion.

[edit] General design

A diagram of how an electrostatic ion engine works

In the simplest design, an electrostatic ion thruster, a gas like argon, Mercury (element) or Xenon are ionized by exposure to electrons provided by a cathode filament. The ions are accelerated by passing them through highly charged grids. Electrons are also fired into the ion beam downstream of the grids as the positively charged ions leave the thruster. This keeps the spacecraft and the thruster beams neutral electrically. The acceleration uses up very little reaction mass (i.e., the specific impulse, or I_sp, is very high).

[edit] Energy usage

A major consideration is the amount of energy or power required to run the thruster, partly to ionize the materials, but most especially to accelerate the ions to the extremely high speeds required to have any useful effect. Exhaust speeds of 30 km/s are not uncommon, which is far faster than the 3–4.5 km/s for chemical rockets. This makes for notably low propellant usage.

With ion thrusters, most of the energy is lost in the high speed exhaust and this affects the thrust levels. It turns out that the overall thrust obtained from a given amount of energy is inversely proportional to exhaust speed (since energy consumption per kilogram of propellant is proportional to exhaust velocity squared, but the thrust per kilogram of propellant is only proportional to exhaust speed ^[1]). Increasing the ion exhaust momentum by 10 times requires expending 100 times more electrical energy. This results in a tradeoff between specific impulse and thrust, with the two being inversely proportional to each other for any given power.

For an extreme example, an ion thruster using a particle accelerator can be designed to achieve an exhaust velocity approaching the speed of light. This could provide an ion propulsion specific impulse approaching 30,000,000 seconds, but this would inevitably give negligible thrust due to the low propellant flow.

The exhaust velocity attained by ions when they are accelerated inside of an electric field can be calculated using the following equation:

$V_e=\sqrt{2{Q \over M} V_a}$

[edit] Thrust

In practice, with currently practical energy sources of perhaps a few tens of kilowatts, and given a not untypical I_sp of 3000 seconds (30 kN·s/kg), ion thrusters give only extremely modest forces (often tenths or hundredths of a newton). Large ion propulsion engines require large and massive electric power sources. Ion engines typically provide space craft acceleration rates of from 10^-5 g to 10^-3 g (0.000098 m/s² to 0.0098 m/s²). Only nuclear power can deliver energy of gigawatts over weeks, months, or years. Together with a particle accelerator, especially a linear accelerator, there is a good combination for transporting bigger masses.

[edit] Lifespan

Given the low thrust, the life of the thruster becomes important. Ion thrusters have to be kept running a large part of the time to allow the milligee acceleration to gain a useful velocity.

In the simplest ion thruster design, an electrostatic ion thruster, the ions often hit the grids, which leads to erosion of the grids and their eventual failure. Smaller grids lower the chance of these accidental collisions, but decrease the amount of charge they can handle, and thus lower the thrust.

[edit] Missions

Of all the electric thrusters, ion thrusters have been the most seriously considered commercially and academically in the quest for interplanetary missions and orbit raising maneuvers. Ion thrusters are seen as the best solution for these missions as they require very high Δv (the overall change in velocity, taken as a single value) that can be built up over long periods of time.

The Hall effect thruster is a type of ion thruster that has been used for decades for station keeping by the Soviet Union and is now also applied in the West: the European Space Agency's satellite Smart 1 used it. This satellite completed its mission on September 3, 2006, in a controlled collision on the Moon's surface, after a trajectory deviation to be able to see the 3 meter crater the impact created on the visible side of the moon.

NASA has developed an ion thruster called NSTAR for use in their interplanetary missions. This thruster was tested in the highly successful space probe Deep Space 1. Hughes has developed the XIPS (Xenon Ion Propulsion System) for performing stationkeeping on geosynchronous satellites. These are electrostatic ion thrusters and work by a different principle than Hall effect thrusters.

In 2003 NASA ground-tested a new version of their ion thruster called High Power Electric Propulsion, or HiPEP. The HiPEP thruster differs from earlier ion thrusters because the xenon ions are produced using a combination of microwave energy and magnetic fields. The ionization is achieved through a process called electron cyclotron resonance (ECR). In ECR, a uniform magnetic field is applied to a chamber holding xenon gas. The small number of free electrons present in the neutral gas orbit around the magnetic field lines at a fixed frequency called the cyclotron frequency. Microwave radiation is applied that is carefully tuned to this frequency, supplying energy to the electrons, which then ionize more xenon atoms through collisions. This process is a highly efficient means of creating a plasma in low density gases. Previously the electrons required were provided by a hollow cathode.

Other propellants have been considered for use with ion thrusters. Research has been invested in fullerenes for this purpose, specifically C₆₀ (buckminsterfullerene), due in part to its large electron-impact cross section. This property gives the potential for ion thrusters with higher efficiency than current Xenon-based designs at I_sp values of less than 3,000 s (29 kN·s/kg).

JP Aerospace has been working to build an orbital airship, which uses a combination of a balloon and ion thrusters to achieve orbit without any use of conventional rockets, for roughly 70 cents per ton per kilometer of altitude ($1/(short ton·mile)).

The Japanese space agency's Hayabusa, which was launched in 2003 and successfully rendezvoused with the asteroid 25143 Itokawa and remained in close proximity for many months to collect samples and information, is powered by two xenon Ion Engines. It is using xenon ions generated by microwave ECR, and a Carbon / Carbon-composite material for acceleration grid which is resistant to erosion.^[2]

On 12 July 2001, the European Space Agency failed to launch their Artemis telecommunication satellite, and left it in a decaying orbit. The satellite's chemical propellant supply was sufficient to transfer it to a semi-stable orbit, and over then next 18 months the experimental onboard ion propulsion system (intended for secondary stationkeeping and maneuvering) was utilized to transfer it to a geostationary orbit. ^[3]