Census of Quirinius

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The Census of Publius Sulpicius Quirinius was an enrolment (apographai) of the Roman Provinces of Syria and of Iudaea (which included Samaria, Judea and Idumea), for the purpose of taxation taken during the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. The Gospel of Luke places this census at the time of the birth of Jesus. However, possible conflicts between the account of the Gospel of Luke and the account of Josephus, as well as its relationship with the Gospel of Matthew, have given rise to academic debate. Central issues concerning this debate include the historicity of the gospels, Biblical inerrancy, and more generally the Chronology of Jesus.

The Gospel of Luke and the Gospel of Matthew both place Jesus' birth under the reign of Herod the Great. Luke similarly describes the events as occurring during the governorship of Quirinius, and involving the first census of the provinces of Syria and Iudaea. Josephus places the governorship of Quirinius, and a census, in A.D. 6, long after the death of Herod the Great in 4 B.C. (which Luke refers to in Acts 5:37). Hence debate has centered over whether or not the sources can be reconciled by asserting a prior governorship of Quirinius in Syria, or if an earlier census was conducted, and if not then which source to consider in error. Furthermore, other arguments have brought into question the grammatical structure of Luke's account, and its subsequent proper translation, astrological calculations of the Star of Bethlehem, the proper interpretation of ancient inscriptions, and various other topics.

Contents 1 Sources 2 Attempts at solutions 2.1 Two governorships of Quirinius 3 Roman Censuses 4 Footnotes 5 External links

[edit] Sources

The three sources for the events in question are the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, which are both biographies of the life of Jesus, and the Jewish Antiquities, a multivolume work on Jewish history and customs by the Jewish Roman historian Josephus Flavius.

The Gospel of Luke records:

And it came to pass in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the land should be enrolled. This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So all went to be registered, everyone to his own city. Joseph also went up from Galilee, out of the city of Nazareth, into Judea, to the city of David, which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and lineage of David, to be registered with Mary, his betrothed wife, who was with child. So it was that, while they were there, the days were completed for her to be delivered. And she brought forth her firstborn Son, and wrapped Him in swaddling cloths, and laid Him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn. (Luke 2:1-7)

Luke also recorded Mary's pregnancy as contemporary with that of her relative Elizabeth (Luke 1:36), whose own pregnancy had occurred "in the days of Herod, King of Judea" (Luke 1:5). Hence Luke places the governing of Quirinius as roughly contemporary to the reign of Herod the Great. This corresponds with the account of the Gospel of Matthew, which likewise places the birth of Jesus under the reign of Herod the Great (Matthew 2:1). According to most historians, Herod's rule ended upon his death in 4 B.C.,^[1] likely in late March or early April, based on astrological reconstructions of a lunar eclipse mentioned by Josephus as coinciding with the event,^[2] although a minority argue for alternative dates.^[3]

Matthew, besides placing the birth of Jesus under the reign of Herod the Great, also recorded that Herod had all the male children in Bethlehem two years old and younger executed (Matthew 2:16, see Slaughter of the Innocents), based on a prophecy relayed to him by the three magi that a new king of the Jews had been born in the town. The order's instruction of "two and under", along with the inference that it took Herod time to realize the magi were not about to deliver the youth to him, implies a date of 6-4 B.C. as the latest possible dating.

Josephus recorded that Quirinius, a Roman senator and governor of Syria, along with an equestrian assistant named Coponius, who was assigned as governor of Iudaea Province after the exile of Herod Archelaus, successor to Herod the Great, were assigned to conduct a tax census for the Emperor.^[4] Josephus also stated that Archelaus was exiled ten years after his reign began,^[5] and that Quirinius conducted a census after this, in the thirty-seventh year since the Battle of Actium, which places the event at A.D. 6.^[6]

Luke in the Acts of the Apostles (Acts 5:37), records: "After him (Theudas) Judas the Galilean rose up at the time of the census and got people to follow him...."

Tacitus, in his Annals, gives an obituary for Quirinius (Annals 3.48), though the passage is unfortunately silent on the essentials of the events in question. [1]

[edit] Attempts at solutions

[edit] Two governorships of Quirinius

One possible reconciliation of the sources is to posit a second governorship of Quirinius in Syria during 4 B.C., when another (the "first") census took place. There is no direct evidence for this, although partial evidence has been given as support.

Sentius Saturninus was provincial governor in Syria from 9 to 6 B.C., followed by Publius Quintilius Varus, who according to Josephus led a force against a revolt in Judea after Herod's death, which would mean he was an authority in Judea until at least April of 4 B.C. After Varus it is not known who was governing Syria from 4 to 1 B.C. Hence, if Quirinius did serve as governor of the province twice, it would have to have been during this time, unless Quirinius served as co-ruler of the province (perhaps in a capacity similar to that of Coponius, below). Varus did show ineptitude as a governor later, in A.D. 9, when he suffered a devastating defeat in the Teutoberg forest. There is mention of Quirinius in the East on military functions.^[7] Though rare, the use of two governing authorities was used by Rome in Africa under Caligula, and also in Palestine during Vespasian's campaigns. Josephus also mentioned a dual-governing of Volumnius and Sentius Saturninus in Syria from 9 to 6 B.C., although certain interpretations dispute this.^[8]

The Greek word used by Luke, hegemoneuontos (ηγεμονευοντος; root: hegemon), was used in ancient Greek to refer to varying forms of "governing", and could apply to other contexts of wielding authority besides the specific office of provincial governor, contexts fitting for Quirinius throughout his notable career. Nonetheless, the position of Quirinius would have to be sufficiently notable to warrant its mentioning by Luke in association with the census.

An inscription, known as the Lapis Tiburtinus, reads: "proconsul asiam provinciam opti… divi augusti iterum syriam et pho…" [2] Translated it reads: "Proconsul obtained the province Asia Minor… of the divine Augustus a second time in Syria…" This text, which is damaged (missing section represented above by "…"), could mean either that an individual held office in Syria twice, or simply that he held office twice in two different provinces. The stone bearing the inscription was found near the villa of Quintillus Varus, leading to speculation that he is the intended subject. In any case, there is no specific evidence that the text refers to Quirinius.

Two other inscription stones, commemorating the career of another Roman politician, both mention that this Roman held a duoviri, or rule as dual magistrate, along with Quirinius in a city near Galatia. Dating the inscriptions is difficult, but the time in question is plausible. However, the city in question likely was beyond the domain of a Syrian provincial governor. The more general application of hegemon could account for a wider range of authority.

A further, funerary inscription, known as the Aemilius Secundus, follows the career of a solider who served under Quirinius "Caesar's legate in Syria". The text chronologically recounts the events of the life of Aemilius, placing a census "of 117 thousand citizens" before the military campaigns of Quirinius in the north of Syria, events that occurred c. 4 to 6 B.C. The census, however, only mentions "citizen" (i.e. Romans, not Jews) in the city of Apamea, but it is consistent with the hypothesis that Quirinius conducted censuses while militarily governing in Syria before his provincial governorship.

Tacitus did not mention the governing of a province twice in his obituary of Quirinius (see above), though he did briefly mention his military endeavours in the East.^[9]

The Jesus Seminar's Scholars Version translation notes for Luke 2:2: "Quirinius was governor of Syria in 6-7 C.E. The problem of how to reconcile the chronology of 2:2 with 1:5 (Herod died in 4 B.C.E) has defied solution."

[edit] Roman Censuses

The occurrence of Roman censuses is only partially attested to in the historical sources. Evidence for them includes the occasional mentioning in a history, the archaeological discovery of papyri records in arid climates like Egypt, and certain inscriptions. Often, a census will only be mentioned in one ancient text (for example, only Josephus mentioned directly the census of A.D. 6).

Augustus is known to have had an interest in the collection of census data on his empire. He is known to have taken a census of Roman citizens at least three times, in 28 B.C., 8 B.C., and A.D. 14.^[10] There is also evidence that censuses were taken at regular intervals during his reign, at least in the provinces of Egypt and Sicily, important because of their wealthy estates and supply of grain. Furthermore, the censuses in Egypt were based on the Egyptian, rather than Roman, calendar.^[11] Additionally there is the census in Judea mentioned by Josephus in A.D. 6 (see above). Orosius mentioned another census in 3 B.C., and Josephus records a mandatory "oath of obedience" to Augustus required in Judea at a similar time, which involved the erecting of statues to the emperor.^[12] Josephus also mentions that, after the death of Herod, some pleaded with Archelaus for their "taxes to be reduced", a sign of tax pressure in the area prior to A.D. 6.^[13]

Certain official enrolment papers have been discovered in Palestine, regularly taken from no later than A.D. 20 to the time of Emperor Constantine, which includes information on each family based on the testimony of the head of household. These are unknown to the historical sources.

Generally an imperial census was not conducted in a Roman client kingdom, though it did infrequently occur. Josephus records that relations between King Herod and Rome were poor.^[14] Of course the area had been subject to many Roman military campaigns and tribute payment, beginning with Pompey in 48 B.C., and it is not unfair to characterize Herod largely as a Roman puppet. A Zealots tax revolt accompanied the taxation of Judea in A.D. 6, which drew the attention of Josephus. This has given rise to the speculation that, if there were an earlier enrolment in 4 B.C., it would likely have evoked the same response and subsequent attention of Josephus, unless this enrolment did not involve immediate taxation (such as implied by the enrolment papers mentioned above).

The census as recorded by Luke is in accord with Jewish, rather than Roman administrative customs, requiring enrolment based on ancestral tribe rather than current location (Luke 2:3-4). Although, even Roman citizens enrolled according to tribe at times. It is known that the Roman Empire did retain certain local tax enrolment customs for non-citizens at times, for example in Sicily. There is also a hint in Josephus that Herod was required to give a tally of his populace by local groupings.^[15] Lastly, that a census could require travel is known from certain papyri.^[16] On the other hand, the Jesus Seminar's Scholars Version translation notes for Luke 2:3-4: "This procedure for a census is unattested in ancient sources."

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] External links

• Josephus' Antiquities 18

Skeptics:

• The Date of the Nativity in Luke
• Putting Luke 2:2 in context
• On Herod and Quirinius

Apologists:

• When did the Luke 2 census occur?
• The seekers' guide to the Bible: The Census
• The Census of Quirinius: The Historicity of Luke 2:1-5