Aztec society
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[edit] Aztec social structure
[edit] Class structure
The society traditionally was divided into two social classes; the macehualli (people) or peasantry and the pilli or nobility. Nobility was not originally hereditary, although the sons of pillis had access to better resources and education, so it was easier for them to become pillis. Eventually, this class system took on hereditary aspects.
In the later days of the empire, the concept of macehualli also had changed. Eduardo Noguera (Annals of Anthropology, UNAM, Vol. xi, 1974, p. 56) estimates only 20% of the population was dedicated to agriculture and food production. The other 80% of society were not only warriors, but also skilled artisans and aggressive traders. Eventually, most of the macehuallis were dedicated to arts and crafts. Their works were an important source of income for the city (Sanders, William T., Settlement Patterns in Central Mexico. Handbook of Middle American Indians, 1971, vol. 3, p. 3-44).
Traveling merchants called pochteca were a small, but important class as they not only facilitated commerce, but also communicated vital information across the empire and beyond its borders. They were often employed as spies.
[edit] Slavery
Slaves or tlacotin also constituted an important class. Distinct from war captives, this slavery was very different from what Europeans of the same period were to establish in their colonies, although it had much in common with the slavery of classical antiquity.
Bernardino de Sahagún questions whether the term "slavery" is appropriate for this Aztec institution. First, slavery was personal, not hereditary: a slave's children were free. A slave could have possessions and even own other slaves. Slaves could buy their liberty, and slaves could be set free if they were able to show they had been mistreated or if they had children with or were married to their masters.
Typically, upon the death of the master, slaves who had performed outstanding services were freed. The rest of the slaves were passed on as part of an inheritance.
An Aztec could be made a slave as a punishment. A murderer sentenced to death could instead, upon the request of the wife of his victim, be given to her as a slave. A father could sell his son into slavery if the son was declared incorrigible by an authority. Those who did not pay their debts could also be sold as slaves.
People could sell themselves as slaves. They could stay free long enough to enjoy the price of their liberty, about twenty blankets, usually enough for a year; after that time they went to their new master. Usually this was the fate of gamblers and of old ahuini (courtesans or prostitutes).
[edit] Daily life
[edit] Aztec Arts
Song and poetry were highly regarded; there were presentations and poetry contests at most of the Aztec festivals. Also there was a kind of dramatic presentation that included players, musicians and acrobats.
[edit] Poetry
Poetry was the only occupation worthy of an Aztec warrior in times of peace. A remarkable amount of this poetry survives, having been collected during the era of the conquest. In some cases, we know names of individual authors, such as Netzahualcoyotl, tlatoani of Texcoco, and Cuacuatzin, Lord of Tepechpan. Miguel León-Portilla, the most renowned translator of Nahuatl, comments that it is in this poetry where we can find the real thought of the Aztecs, independent of "official" Aztec ideology.
In the basement of the Great Temple there was the "house of the eagles", where in peacetime Aztec captains could drink a foaming chocolate, smoke good cigars, and have poetry contests. The poetry was accompanied by percussion instruments (teponaztli). Recurring themes in this poetry are whether life is real or a dream, whether there is an afterlife, and whether we can approach the giver of life.
An important collection of these poems is Romances de los señores de la Nueva España, collected in Tezcoco in 1582, probably by Juan Bautista de Pomar. This volume was later translated into Spanish by Ángel María Garibay K.. Bautista de Pomar was the great grandson of Netzahualcoyotl. He spoke Nahuatl, but was raised as Christian and wrote in Latin characters.
- "Is It You?", a short poem by Netzahualcoyotl, can be found in Wikisource.
- "Lament on the Fall of Tenochtitlan", a short poem contained within the "Unos Anales Históricos de la Nación Mexicana" manuscript, can be found in Wikisource.
[edit] Drama
The Aztec people also enjoyed a type of dramatic presentation, although it could not be called theater. Some were comical with music and acrobats, others were staged dramas of their gods. After the conquest, the first Christian churches had open chapels reserved for these kinds of representations. Plays in Nahuatl, written by converted Indians, were an important instrument for the conversion to Christianity, and are still found today in the form of traditional pastorelas, which are played during Christmas to show the Adoration of Baby Jesus, and other Biblical passages.
[edit] Aztec trade and commerce
Prior to the fall of the Aztec Empire, the Aztec people had a stable economy driven by a successful trade market. The markets, which were located in the center of many communities, were well organized and diverse in goods, as noted by the Spanish conquistadors upon their arrival. The regional merchants, known as tlanecuilo tended to barter utilitarian items and foodstuffs, which included gold, silver, and other precious stones, cloth and cotton, animal skins, both agriculture and wild game, and woodwork. The trade market of the Aztec people was not only important to commerce, but also to the socialization, as the markets provided a place for the people to exchange information within their regions. This type of trade market was used primarily for locally produced goods, as there was not much traveling needed to exchange goods at the market. With no domestic animals and to effective way to transport goods, the local markets were an essential part of Aztec commerce. However, the Aztec nobility obtained much of their merchandise from neighboring highland basins, distant places within the empire, and from land beyond the empire, therefore creating the need for a long distance trade organization.
The long distance trade was carried out by merchants called pochteca, who were defined by their positions within the system. These professional merchants occupied a high status in Aztec society, below the noble class. The pochteca were responsible for providing the materials that the noble class used to display their wealth. These materials were often obtained from foreign sources. Due to the success of the pochteca, many of the merchants became as wealthy as the noble class, but were obligated to hide this wealth from the public. The pochteca were an advanced group who reported to 12 locations throughout the Empire, where the high officials were located.
The highest officials of the pochteca were the pochtecatlatoque. The pochtecatlatoque were the elder of the pochteca, and were no longer travelers, but rather acted as administrators, overseeing young pochteca and administering the marketplace. The second group of pochteca was the slave traders, known as the tlatlani. These people were often referred to as the richest of merchants, as they played a central role in bathing the slaves used for sacrificial victims.
The third group of long distance traders was the tencunenenque, who worked for the rulers by carrying out personal trade.
A group of trader spies, known as the naualoztomeca, made up the last group of pochteca. The naualoztomeca were forced to disguise themselves as they traveled, as they sought after rare goods. The naualoztomeca were also used for gathering information at the markets and reporting the information to the higher levels of pochteca.
All trade throughout the Aztec Empire was regulated by officers who patrolled the markets to ensure that the buyers were not being cheated by the merchants. Because markets were so large in numbers, in large cities reaching upwards of 20,000 people, the organization was crucial, and the Aztecs were able to create a successful market due to the success of enforcing the laws of the trade markets.
[edit] Ancient Aztec architecture
One of the most striking features of the Aztec society was the architectural feats the people were able to achieve and display throughout the cities. The architectural focus in the Aztec Empire was directed towards the capital Tenochititlan and other major cities in order to publicly display the power of the empire. In the city, the Aztecs built many large temples and palaces, having well over 80 large structures in Tenochititlan, each designed to serve a different purpose. The temples were dedicated to specified gods, and used for designated activities, the fasting of priests, killing of captives, religious ceremonies, and holy bathing areas. Several of the temples were used for human sacrifice, some for sacrificing small numbers of people, and others for larger masses.
All the Aztec temples resembled the Egyptian pyramids, as they were built upwards to bring the people closer to the gods. The Aztec buildings displayed unusual order and symmetry and all utilized surrounding natural resources, adapting effectively to the diverse terrain, as many of the temples were built into rocks or over rivers. Another distinct feature of the Aztec temples was the method of building. Rather then preparing a place for a building, the Aztecs built over what previously existed in the location. This included building a new temple over an old one, and building over the most treacherous landscapes. When the Spanish Conquistadors arrived in Tenochititlan, it was said that the Aztec city rivaled the most advanced European cities.
The most distinct building in the Aztec capital was the Emperor’s Palace, which was not only the largest building in the Empire, but also one of the most structurally complex. This two story building was adorned with high value paintings, carvings, and gold panels, with stairs of pure marble. The palace contained many rooms, each designed for a different purpose; one was designed to store the Emperors’ tributes he received from the people, another designed to meet and host visiting dignitaries, and a messenger room where the Emperor learned of the news of the city.
While the striking architecture was easily recognized in the large buildings, the houses of the common people were also architecturally advanced for Mesoamerica during the time of the Aztec Empire. Every inhabitant, both nobility and commoner had a home consisting of two buildings. The building material varied by class; the nobility often had houses built of stone or lime, while the common people had adobe houses. The first building contained one room, divided perfectly into four areas: a sleeping area, a kitchen, a family shrine, and a discussion area. The second building of the home was a steam bath, which was believed to be very therapeutic in Aztec society. The walls of the building were heated by a fire, and once heated, steam was poured over the walls, creating the steam bath.
The Aztec architecture revealed a great deal about the intricacies of the society, as great detail was included on all designs. Today, very little of the Aztec work stands, as the majority was destroyed by the Spanish with the fall of the Empire. However, the ruins left behind have told a fascinating story of the architectural feats of the Aztec people.
[edit] Aztec agriculture
The pre-conquest Aztecs were a society that prospered agriculturally, and they did so without the wheel or domestic beasts of burden. They had four main methods of agriculture that were quite successful. The earliest, most basic form of agriculture implemented by the Aztecs is known as “rainfall cultivation.” The Aztecs also implemented terrace agriculture in hilly areas, or areas that could not be used for normal farming. Terracing allowed for an increased soil depth and impeded soil erosion. The terraces were built by piling up a wall of stones parallel to the contour of the hillside. Dirt was then filled in, creating viable, flat farmland. There were three types of terrace agriculture, each one used for specific circumstances. The three types were; hillslope contour terraces (steeper slopes), semi-terraces (gentle slopes, walls were made with Maguey plants rather than stone), and cross-channel terraces. Terracing was used mostly in the highlands of the Aztec empire.
In the valleys of the empire, irrigation farming was used. Dams diverted water from natural springs to the fields. This allowed for harvests to be successful on a regular basis. The prosperity of a field was not dependent upon the rain. Irrigation systems had been in place long before the Aztecs. However, they built canal systems that were longer and much more elaborate than any previous irrigation systems. They even managed to divert a large portion of the Cuauhtitlan River to provide irrigation to large areas of fields. The network of canals was a very complex and intricate system.
In the swampy regions along Lake Xochimilco, the Aztecs implemented yet another method of crop cultivation. They built what are called chinampas. Chinampas are areas of raised land, created from alternating layers of mud from the bottom of the lake, and plant matter/other vegetation. These “raised beds” were between 2 and 4 meters wide, and 20 to 40 meters long. They rose about 1 meter above the surface of the water, and were separated by narrow canals, which allowed farmers to move between them by canoe. The chinampas were extremely fertile pieces of land, and yielded, on average, seven crops annually. In order to plant on them, farmers first created “seedbeds,” or reed rafts, where they planted seeds and allowed them to germinate. Once they had, they were re-planted in the chinampas. This cut the growing time down considerably.
While most of the farming occurred outside the densely populated areas, within the cities there was another method of (small scale) farming. Each family had their own garden plot where they grew maize, fruits, herbs, medicines and other important plants.
Of the various crops grown by the Aztecs, maize was by far the most important. Aztec diets centered around it. Maize was grown across the entire empire, in the highland terraces, valley farms and also on the chinampas. Women grounded maize into a coarse meal by rubbing it with a grinding stone called a mano against a flat stone called a metatate. The Aztecs made tortillas from the corn meal.
Other crops that the Aztecs relied upon were avocados, beans, squashes, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, chia, amaranth and chilies. These crops were also grown everywhere. Crops that were specific to the lowland regions were cotton, fruits, cacao beans and rubber trees.
[edit] Aztec medicine
The pre-conquest Aztec culture had a holistic way of explaining illness. They believed that disease was not always caused by one thing, but encompassed three realms. Illness was either caused by supernatural or religious causes, magical causes or natural causes.
Illnesses or injuries believed to be caused by supernatural forces were things caused by the gods, or deities. The Aztecs believed that if a god caused a person’s illness, they had done something to offend them. In order to cure an ailment caused by the supernatural, the patient had to see a specialist who would tell them what deity they had offended, and what rituals to perform to appease said deity. There were many ways to appease the deity that the patient had offended. Some such methods involved various rituals, offerings, confessions, expiations and prayers. The specialists that discovered the deity responsible for the persons ailment, had to voyage to other worlds and realms to do so. In order to do so, the specialist would use hallucinogens. Some Aztecs believed that if a god was not the cause of the patient’s illness, the person was not balanced internally and spiritually. While some Aztecs believed this, there were other acceptable explanations and cures for illnesses.
Disease or injuries thought to be caused by magic were ailments inflicted upon a person by a sorcerer. Sorcerers had the ability to place upon people spells or curses that caused whatever the sorcerer wanted. This was considered “black magic.” In order to cure such an ailment, one had to see a doctor, or a tlictil. They were believed to know “white magic” and have the ability to reverse the spell put upon the patient by a black magic sorcerer.
The Aztecs also believed there were “natural” causes for ailments. Such a cause might be war, falling and breaking a bone, a headache, nausea, pimples, chest pains and various infections. In order to cure things like this, the Aztec’s resorted to their extensive knowledge of herbs. There were some 132 herbs believed to have curative powers that cured 40 ailments other than injuries. They also cured most injuries as well. If a person fell and broke their arm, the bones would be set, then splinted with ground roots or herbs. In most cases, there were no specific guidelines explaining how an herbal medicine must be administered. One could, spread the herbs on the injury, bathe in the herb, or drink it in a potion. No one-way was said to be better than the others.
Many herbs cured a number of ailments and could be mixed with other herbs to do different things. Some 45 herbs were said to cure a fever, and 18 could be applied to festered skin. Some herbs, like tlatlanquaye, were considered to be “cure-alls.” Tlatlanquaye cured bleeding, vomiting, side and chest pain, sluggishness and weakness. However, while certain herbs could cure many things, in most cases, no single herb could completely cure an ailment. Usually a combination had to be used.
The Aztecs clearly had an extensive knowledge of plants, and they also had at least some knowledge of tissue growth and surgery. Aztec doctors used scalpels made from obsidian. Obsidian is much sharper than surgical steel and thus did less damage to the tissue enabling a faster recovery time.
[edit] Aztec art
There were many forms of art important to the Aztec culture from 1300-1521. While poetry and song were a huge part of their society, sculptures, mosaics, and wall paintings were also an integral part of Aztec daily life and have often been overlooked by historians.
"Sculpture was virtually limited to depictions of gods created for religious purposes." ¹ These sculptures were generally representations of the many Aztec gods and used for ceremonially purposes. Some religious sculptures that were found by the Spanish conquistadors were covered in dried blood, most likely from the many human sacrifices. A lot of these sculptures were used as furnishings in temples; there were even some intricately sculpted thrones that were used in Aztec palaces. The only other pottery was used for daily chores, and these pots were generally very plain and simplistic.
The Aztec mosaics were often created with feathers, turquoise, gold, and even jade. At one point there were many detailed "mosaic paintings" constructed of tiny exotic bird feathers, but almost all of these were destroyed during the Spanish conquest. Other creations made of feathers were masks, costumes, and headdresses, which were also used for religious ceremonies. The many emperors of the Aztecs also wore these headdresses.
Basically all Aztec art was created for religious purposes with a minute amount made for the emperor. The Aztecs put such a high emphasis on religion and pleasing the gods, that they most likely did not feel that they should put forth time or energy on art for any other purpose. More examples of this are found in the massive wall paintings depicting the gods. These paintings were done on damp plaster (similar to classic Italian murals) and generally showed the gods wearing intricate outfits and headdresses. These painting are generally found on temple walls.
While archaeologists are sure that the Aztecs themselves created much of this art, they do not believe that the Aztecs are responsible for the ideas behind most of it. Basically all of the Aztec art (sculptures, mosaics, paintings) are based on Mixtec artistic principles. The Mixtecs created very similar artwork, hundreds of years before the Aztec Empire existed.
¹ Anton, Ferdinand. Pre-Columbian Art. Harry N. Abrams, Inc.: New York, NY.
[edit] Aztec Calendar
Similar to the Mayans and other Mesoamerican cultures, the Aztecs used a calendar with multiple components. The first part of the calendar is similar to the yearly calendar used by most people today.
This calendar, called xiuhpohualli (which mean "counting of the years"), is a solar calendar containing 365 days. These days are split up into eighteen cycles of twenty days. The extra five days leftover after the eighteen cycles were considered to be unlucky. This solar calendar is often referred to as the Vague year since there are an extra six hours at the end of the year left unaccounted for. While the Aztecs were normally very accurate with any mathematical calculations, for some reason they did not feel a need to integrate these extra six hours into the calendar anywhere. For each of the twenty different days, there was an Aztec name, such as pop. Then, depending on which of the eighteen and one-fourth cycles that the day fell in, it would have a number. An example of a day’s name in the xiuhpohualli calendar would be 11 pop.
The other calendar that the Aztecs used is called Tonalpohualli, meaning the counting of the days. This cycle is used mostly for religious purposes and divination. There are thirteen cycles of twenty days. For each of the twenty days there is, once again, a different symbol name such as Deer or Flower. Then, for each of the thirteen cycles, the Aztecs added a number to the symbol. For example, some names of days in this calendar would be 12 crocodile and 2 deer.
With the Tonalpohualli calendar, the Aztecs believed that they could learn about a person from their date of birth. Supposedly, just by looking at which number and symbol fell on your date of birth, you could determine how your life was going to turn out. Farmers even used the symbols of current days when deciding which type of maize to plant and where to plant it. With marriage, men and women were not advised to get married if their birth date contained the same number, such as 3 deer and 3 corn.
When the Aztecs combined these two calendars, they would have different names of days for roughly fifty-two years (exactly 18,980 days), as this is how long it takes for the first days of the two calendars to line up again. When putting the calendars together, a full name for a day would be 2 deer 0 pop. Using this full system to name the days the day 2 deer 0 pop would occur once every 18,980 days. Every fifty-two years, when the calendars both started over, the Aztec people would have huge celebrations. These festivals were put on for all the people in order to celebrate completion and renewal.
[edit] References
- Anton, Ferdinand. Pre-Columbian Art. Harry N. Abrams, Inc.: New York, NY.
- "Aztec calendar." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 20 Sept. 2006 http://0search.eb.com.tiger.coloradocollege.edu:80/eb/article-9011558>.
- Berdan, Frances. The Aztecs of Central New Mexico: An Imperial Society. N.p.: Thomson Wadsworth, n.d.
- De Montellano, Oritz. Aztec Medicine, Health and Nutrition. N.p.: Rutgers University Press, n.d.
- Mann, Charles C. 1491. Random House: New York, NY. 2005.
- Marcus, Joyce. "The Origins of Mesoamerican Writing." Annual Review of Anthropology 5 (1976). 19 Sept. 2006 <http://www.jstor.org/search>.
- Miller, Mary Ellen. The Art of Mesoamerica. Thames & Hudson Ltd: London. 2001.
- Nicholson, H.B. “Aztec.” World Book Online Reference Center. World Book. 17 Sept. 2006 <http://www.worldbookonline.com/>.
- Smith, Michael Ernest. The Aztecs. Malden Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers INC, 1996.
- Townsend, Richard F. "Aztec." Academic American Encyclopedia. 1998.
- Townsend, Richard F. The Aztecs. New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd., 1992.
- Van Tuerenhout, Dirk R. The Aztecs.
