鬍鬚
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鬍鬚，俗稱鬍子，是生長於男性下巴、面頰、脖子或上唇的毛髮。有些人的鬍鬚跟頭髮是連成一片的，當要區分頭髮與鬍鬚時，鬍鬚是指低於下巴的部分，除了圍繞唇邊的鬍鬚。長在唇上的鬍鬚英文叫“moustache”。有一門對鬍鬚進得研究的科學叫：鬍鬚研究學(Pogonology)。
曆史上，男人會留鬍鬚有各種各樣的代表意義，例如：智慧、性能力、身份地位，等等。但亦存在有負面意義，例如：不乾淨整潔或行爲古怪。
目录 |
[编辑] 曆史
[编辑] 古代及傳統世界
古埃及人把喪事與鬍鬚聯繫在一起。由於反對小鬍子(moustache)和下顎的胡子(goatee)，他們一般覺得鬍鬚並不吸引人。
鬍鬚對東方國家男性非常重要。淫亂及通姦會被處以切斷鬍鬚的處罰。他們以神聖的眼光看待鬍鬚，會付錢來抵押避免被切斷鬍鬚。
波斯人喜歡長鬍鬚。波斯王Olearius' Travels下令砍下他大臣的頭，他看過被砍下的頭後說：“真可惜呀，此人留得一筆這麽好的鬍子，但卻被處死”然後又補充到“啊！這是你自己的錯。”
當阿力山大大帝要去攻打波斯時，大臣向他報告一切已經準備就緒，問他還有什麽需要。阿力山大回答：“除了剪去那些馬其頓人的胡子就沒什麽了，因爲剪去鬍子比拿個人去容易多了。”這表時了阿力山大有意結束戰爭。
在早期的羅馬曆史中，刮鬍子像是無人知曉的事情（在羅馬皇朝及早期的共和國時期）。Pliny告知我們，羅馬建城四百五十四年後（即約公元前二九九年），P. Ticinius是首位被帶到羅馬的理髮師(barber)。大西庇阿是羅馬中首位修胡子的人。然後，刮鬍子即迅速普及，整個羅馬的男人的鬍子都被剃得很乾淨。刮鬍子被看成羅馬人，不刮鬍子的則被看成是希臘人，因爲希臘人常常蓄有鬍子。羅馬的後共和及早期元首統治時期，留鬍子的人變得很少。根據Dion所記載，直到公元二世紀，當哈德良(Hadrian)大帝是所有的凱撒中首位留鬍子的。這段時期在羅馬興起仿效希臘文化，愛好希臘文化的哈德良(Hadrian)大帝及其他其他男人都防效希臘人留鬍子的風尚。自此之後，羅馬再次興起蓄鬍子。
古羅馬人有個習俗--把年青男子第一次長出的鬍鬚獻給神。因此尼祿(Nero)剪下了他第一次長出的鬍子伴以珍珠放進一個金盒內在卡比托奈山(Capitoline Hill)獻給朱庇特(Jupiter)。
對羅馬人來說，蓄有鬍鬚的男子代表英勇率直。而羅馬的仆人或奴隸是不允許拔或刮去他們的鬍子的。
若遇到有人過世，羅馬人會任由死者的毛髮與鬍鬚繼續生長，而希臘人則會把死者的毛髮與鬍鬚剃掉。這一習俗可能影響了英國的傳統，英國的寡婦會在丈夫去世後剪下他的毛髮，然後藏起來一段時間。有例子表明，寡婦自己還會剪去機乎全部的頭髮，但這種悲傷的儀式變得越來越少了。
在Catti族（德國的一個部族，可能叫Chatten。），年青男子是不能留鬍子的，除非他要去殺敵。倫巴族人(Lombards或Longobards)以長鬍子而聞名。當偉大的Otho要作正式講話前，他會先以他那長及胸的鬍子發誓。
[编辑] 從文藝複興時期到現代
十五世紀，蓄鬍子已經流行很長一段時間。十六世紀英格蘭的神職人員以不留鬍子來表明他們是獨身的。當牧師深信宗教改革的學說時他會以蓄鬍子作爲信號，表示他們拒絕傳統教派，或者還反對以剃掉鬍子來表明獨身。
鬍子越長，地位越高，因此十六世紀人們把鬍子留得很長（請看Bishop Gardiner及Thomas Cranmer的肖像）。此時流行的鬍子風格，西班牙Spade Beard、英格蘭Square Cut Beard，Forked beard和Stiletto Beard.
Strangely, this trend was especially marked during Queen Mary's reign, a time of reaction against protestant reform (Cardinal Pole's beard is a good example). At this time the beard was very often made use of as a tooth-pick case. Brantôme tells us that Admiral Coligny wore his tooth-pick in his beard. Queen Elizabeth I, succeeding Mary, is said to have disliked beards and therefore established a tax on them.
In urban circles of Western Europe and the Americas, beards were out of fashion after the early 17th century; to such an extent that, in 1698, Peter the Great of Russia levied a tax on beards in order to bring Russian society more in line with contemporary Western Europe.
Throughout the 18th Century beards were unseen among most parts of Western society especially the nobility.
Beards returned strongly to fashion after the Napoleonic Era. Throughout the nineteenth century facial hair (beards, along with long sideburns and moustaches) was more common than not. Many male European monarchs were bearded (e.g. Alexander III of Russia, Napoleon III of France, Frederick III of Germany), as were many of the leading statesmen and cultural figures (e.g. Benjamin Disraeli, Charles Dickens and Giuseppe Verdi, to name just a few). The stereotypical Victorian male figure in the popular mind remains a stern figure clothed in black whose gravitas is added to by a heavy beard (or long sideburns). However, in the early twentienth century beards fell almost completely out of fashion once more; they became largely the preserve of elderly, old-fashioned eccentrics.
Beards, together with long hair, were reintroduced to mainstream society in Western Europe and the Americas by the hippie movement of the mid 1960s. By the end of the 20th century, the closely clipped Verdi beard, often with a matching integrated moustache, was relatively common, as was a stubble beard (especially on younger men). Full beards nonetheless remain a fringe phenomenon.
[编辑] 美國社會現今態度
In the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, beards were rare in the United States, as elsewhere in the Western world. But as elsewhere, they had become prevalent by the mid-nineteenth century. Up to and following the American Civil War, many famous heroes and General officers had distinguished beards. A sign of the shift was to be observed in occupants of the Presidency: before Lincoln, no President had a beard; after Lincoln until McKinley, every President (except Andrew Johnson) had either a beard or a moustache. The beard's loss of popularity since its nineteenth century heyday is shown by the fact that after this brief "golden age", no President has worn a full beard since Benjamin Harrison, and no President has worn any facial hair at all since William H. Taft.
Following World War I, beards fell out of vogue. There are several theories as to why the military began shaving beards.
- When World War I broke out in the 1910s, the use of chemical weapons necessitated that soldiers shave their beards so that gas masks could seal over their faces.
- The enlistment of military recruits for World War I in 1914 precipitated a major migration of men from rural to urban locales. This was the largest such migration that had ever occurred in the United States up to that time. The rural lives of some of these bearded men included the "Saturday Night bath" as a reality rather than as a humourism. The sudden concentration of recruits in crowded army induction centers brought with it disease, including head lice. Remedial action was taken by immediately shaving the faces and cutting the hair of all inductees upon their arrival.
When the war concluded in 1918 the "Dough Boys" returned to a hero's welcome. During this time period the Film Industry was coming into its own and "going to the movies" became a popular pastime. Due to the recent Armistice many of the films had themes related to World War I. These popular films featured actors who portrayed soldiers with their clean shaven faces and "crew cuts". Concurrently, "Madison Avenue's" psychological mass marketing was becoming prevalent. The Gillette Safety Razor Company was one of these marketers' early clients. These events conspired to popularize short hair and clean shaven faces as the only acceptable style for decades to come. It has been noted that there is a close and consistent association of long standing in American film between facial hair and role—if one lead male character has more facial hair than another, he is far more likely to be the antagonist, and the man with less (or no) facial hair the protagonist.
From the 1920s to the early 1960s, beards were virtually nonexistent in mainstream America. The few men who wore beards during this period were either old, Central Europeans, in academia, or part of the counterculture, such as the "beatniks". Even today there is some degree of prejudice against beards and against men who wear beards, although it is much less serious than it once was; beards are normally much more accepted in the Western world than they once were.
Following the Vietnam War, beards exploded in popularity. In the mid-late 1960s and throughout the 1970s, beards were worn by hippies and businessmen alike. Popular rock, soul and folk musicians like The Beatles, Barry White and the male members of Peter, Paul, and Mary wore full beards. The trend of seemingly ubiquitous beards in American culture subsided in the mid 1980s.
From the 1990's onward, the fashion in beards has generally trended toward either a goatee, Van Dyck, or a closely cropped full beard undercut on the throat. It is not unusual to see corporate executives in modern America with a full beard as the stigma against beards has generally fallen to the wayside over the previous 30 years.
[编辑] 鬍鬚與宗教
Beards also play an important role in some religions.
In Greek mythology and art Zeus and Poseidon are always portrayed with beards, but Apollo never is. A bearded Hermes was replaced with the more familiar beardless youth in the 5th century.
[编辑] 錫克教
Sikhs consider the beard to be an integral part of the male human body as created by God and that it should be preserved, maintained, and respected as such. Guru Gobind Singh; the tenth Sikh Guru ordained and established the keeping of the hair and beard as part of the identity, and one of the insignia; of Sikh males. Sikhs consider the beard to be part of the nobility and dignity of manhood.
[编辑] 猶太教
The Bible states in Leviticus 19:27 that "Ye shall not round the corners of your heads, neither shalt thou mar the corners of thy beard." Talmudic rabbis understood this to mean that a man may not shave his beard with a razor with a single blade, since the cutting action of the blade against the skin "mars" the beard. Because scissors have two blades, halakha (rabbinic law) permits their use to trim the beard, as the cutting action comes from contact of the two blades and not the blade against the skin. For this reason, most poskim (Jewish legal decisors) rule that Orthodox Jews may use electric razors to remain cleanshaven, as such shavers cut by trapping the hair between the blades and the metal grating, halakhically a scissor-like action. Some prominent contemporary poskim maintain that electric shavers constitute a razor-like action, and consequently prohibit their use.
Many Orthodox Jews prefer to grow beards despite the allowance for electric shavers, for a variety of social and cultural reasons. Since the electric razor is a relatively modern innovation, virtually all Orthodox Jews grew beards before its advent. As a result, many Hasidic and Haredi Orthodox Jews today grow beards as a social statement in keeping with the tradition of their ancestors, despite technical halakhic permissibility.
The Zohar, one of the primary sources of Kabbalah (Jewish mysticism), attributes holiness to the beard, and strongly discourages its removal. As a result, most Hasidic Jews choose to grow their beard, as they traditionally follow Kabbalistic practices more closely than Jews of Lithuanian background do. Many Hasidic Jews, especially those aligned with the Chabad-Lubavitch sect, take this practice further than most others and do not trim their beards at all, giving them a distinct and often identifiable appearance.
[编辑] 基督教
In Eastern Christianity, beards are often worn by members of the priesthood, and at times have been required for all believers - see Old Believers. Amish and Hutterite men shave until they are married, then grow a beard and are never thereafter without one, although it is a particular form of a beard (see Visual markers of marital status).
[编辑] 伊斯蘭教
Some Muslims believe that it is mandatory by Islamic law to grow the beard because in Sahih Al-Bukhari, Volume 7, Book 72, Hadith # 780: The Prophet said, "Do the opposite of what the pagans do. Keep the beards and cut the moustaches short."
The intent of this hadith is, however, a point of ongoing discussion and interpretation, and the fundamental interpretation is not currently the only accepted one among Muslims. This hadith, placed in historical context, is seen by some as an order at that time and in that place to distinguish one's self from the surrounding non-Muslims, largely for security and cultural reasons, for that situation. It is presently not uncommon for practicing Muslims in Islamic and Western countries to not grow their beards.
In addition, following the Prophet's actions is very important as well since he was proclaimed as a walking Quran and Muslims try their utmost to follow the teachings of the Quran. Since the Prophet kept a beard, many Muslim men keep beards to follow his actions and the teachings of the religion. Depending on their sect, they have differing opinions on how the Prophet Muhammad wore his.
As with hadith, however, following the Prophet's actions is also a point where fundamentalist vs. contextual interpretations come into play. Therefore, many Muslims do shave, since it is generally considered to be virtuous, but not required, to grow a beard.
[编辑] 現代鬍鬚禁忌
[编辑] 運動
Today, for practical reasons (with some exceptions), it is illegal for amateur boxers to have beards.
Under owner George Steinbrenner, the New York Yankees baseball team has a strict dress code that forbids long hair and facial hair below the lip. More recently, Joe Girardi, a former Yankee assistant coach and former manager of the Florida Marlins, adopted a similar clean-shaven policy for his ballclub.
[编辑] 軍隊
Many armed forces still prohibit beards for reasons of hygiene, discipline, or tactical demands (such as the proper fitting and seal of a gas mask); they may also be permitted for cultural, religious, medical or traditional reasons.
[编辑] 加拿大
The Canadian Forces permits moustaches, provided they are neatly trimmed and do not pass beyond the corners of the mouth; an exception to this is the handlebar moustache, which is permitted. Generally speaking, beards are not permitted to CF personnel with the following exceptions:
- members wearing the naval uniform (tradition)
- members of an infantry pioneer platoon (tradition)
- members who must maintain a beard due to religious requirements (Sikhs or orthodox Jews, i.e.)
- members with a medical condition which precludes shaving
These exceptions notwithstanding, in no case is a beard permitted without a moustache, and only full beards may be worn (not goatees, van dykes, etc).
Personnel with beards may still be required to modify or shave off the beard, as environmental or tactical circumstances dictate (e.g. to facilitate the wearing of a gas mask).
[编辑] 以色列
According to the regulations of the Israel Defense Forces, it is prohibited to grow a moustache or beard, except under one of the following circumstances:
- The soldier is a practicing Orthodox Jew and requests to grow a beard for religious reasons.
- The soldier requires a beard for medical reasons; this claim must be accompanied by medical documentation specifying the period of time during which his beard is medically necessary.
- The soldier attains express permission to grow his beard from a high-ranking officer.
- The soldier already has a beard upon his enlistment and requests to continue growing it.
- The soldier is on permanent service (beyond the national service requirement).
If a soldier has obtained permission to grow a beard, the beard must either be:
- A full beard - one that extends from the sideburns to the chin on both sides of the face.
- A goatee - starting from the middle of the face on both sides and extending to the chin, including a moustache.
[编辑] 西班牙
The Spanish Legion allows beards to be grown.
[编辑] 英國
In the United Kingdom, the Royal Navy allows "full sets" (beards and moustaches together) but not beards or moustaches alone. The other British armed services allow moustaches only. Exceptions are beards grown for religious reasons (usually by Sikhs), though in the event of conflict in which the use of chemical or biological weapons is likely, they may be required to shave a strip around the seal of a respirator. Beards are also permitted for medical reasons, such as temporary skin irritations, or by infantry pioneer warrant officers, colour sergeants and sergeants, who traditionally wear beards. Any style of facial hair is allowed in British police forces as long as it is neatly trimmed. Beards are also permited by special forces when not on base, ie covert intelligence operations or behind enemy lines.
[编辑] 美國
The U.S. Army and U.S. Marine Corps justify banning beards on the basis of both hygiene and of the necessity for a good seal with gas masks. The U.S. Navy did allow beards for a time in the 1970s and 1980s, but subsequently banned them again. The vast majority of police forces across the United States still ban beards. However, moustaches are generally allowed in both the military and police forces (except for those undergoing basic training). U.S. Army Special Forces have been allowed to wear beards in Afghanistan, Iraq, and other mideastern countries in order to better fit in with the indigenous population.
[编辑] 鬍鬚法則
- "There are two kinds of people in this world that go around beardless—boys and women, and I am neither one."
- —Greek saying
- LEONATO
- You may light on a husband that hath no beard.
- BEATRICE
- What should I do with him? dress him in my apparel and make him my waiting-gentlewoman? He that hath a beard is more than a youth, and he that hath no beard is less than a man: and he that is more than a youth is not for me, and he that is less than a man, I am not for him…
- —William Shakespeare - Excerpt from 'Much Ado About Nothing' – Act 2, Scene I
[编辑] 早期基督教態度
- St Clement of Alexandria
- "The hair of the chin showed him to be a man." St Clement of Alexandria (c.195, E), 2.271
- "How womanly it is for one who is a man to comb himself and shave himself with a razor, for the sake of fine effect, and to arrange his hair at the mirror, shave his cheeks, pluck hairs out of them, and smooth them!…For God wished women to be smooth and to rejoice in their locks alone growing spontaneously, as a horse in his mane. But He adorned man like the lions, with a beard, and endowed him as an attribute of manhood, with a hairy chest--a sign of strength and rule." St. Clement of Alexandria, 2.275
- "This, then, is the mark of the man, the beard. By this, he is seen to be a man. It is older than Eve. It is the token of the superior nature….It is therefore unholy to desecrate the symbol of manhood, hairiness.” St. Clement of Alexandria, 2.276
- "It is not lawful to pluck out the beard, man’s natural and noble adornment." St. Clement of Alexandria, 2.277
- St Cyprian
- "In their manners, there was no discipline. In men, their beards were defaced." St Cyprian (c. 250, W), 5.438
- "The beard must not be plucked. 'You will not deface the figure of your beard'." [Lev 19:27] St. Cyprian, 5.553
- Lactantius
- "The nature of the beard contributes in an incredible degree to distinguish the maturity of bodies, or to distinguish the sex, or to contribute to the beauty of manliness and strength." Lactantius (c. 304-314, W), 7.288
- Apostolic Constitutions
- "Men may not destroy the hair of their beards and unnaturally change the form of a man. For the Law says, “You will not deface your beards.” For God the Creator has made this decent for women, but has determined that it is unsuitable for men." Apostolic Constitutions (compiled c.390, E) 7.392. (1)
[编辑] 鬍鬚風格
Beard hair is most commonly removed by shaving. If only the area above the upper lip is left unshaven, the resulting facial hairstyle is known as a moustache; if hair is left only on the chin, the style is a chin beard. The combination of a mustache and a chin beard is a goatee or Van Dyck, unless the mustache and chin beard are connected, in which case it is known as a circle beard.
[编辑] 風格
- Full - downward flowing beard with either styled or integrated moustache
- Sideburns - a full beard with a shaved chin
- Chinstrap - a beard with long sideburns then comes forward and end under the chin, resembling a chinstrap, hence the name.
- Garibaldi - wide, full beard with rounded bottom and integrated moustache
- Goatee - A tuft of hair grown on the chin, sometimes resembling a billy goat's.
- Royale (or impériale) - is a tuft of hair under the lower lip. This is also known as a "soul patch" or "flavor saver"
- Stubble - a very short beard of only one to a few days growth
- Van Dyck - A goatee accompanied by a moustache.
- Verdi - short beard with rounded bottom and slightly shaven cheeks with prominent moustache
[编辑] 顔色
- 金胡子
金胡子是一种呈黄色的胡子，在华人血统中比较少见。金胡子并不是通过染色的效果做成的，而是天生长成的黄色胡子。长有金胡子的人中，往往是黑色和黄色胡子混杂，黑色居多数，黄色居少数。
有一种观点认为：胡子有颜色之分，是因为色素，金胡子是由于胡子中含钛所造成的。
金胡子的形象多在童话，小说中出现。中国古人曹操就长有金胡子。
- 红胡子
红胡子是指长有红色的胡子。有红胡子的人往往在电影、小说中被赋予强盗、海盗、国王的形象。
- 银胡子
银胡子是指长有白色的胡子。有银胡子的人，往往被视为道德高尚、智慧过人。银胡子的形象也经常出现在中国的历史传说中，太上老君就有很长的银胡子。
[编辑] 深入了解
- Reginald Reynolds: Beards: Their Social Standing, Religious Involvements, Decorative Possibilities, and Value in Offence and Defence Through the Ages (Doubleday, 1949) (ISBN 0-15-610845-3)
- Helen Bunkin, Randall Williams: Beards, Beards, Beards (Hunter & Cyr, 2000) (ISBN 1-58838-001-7)
- Allan Peterkin: One Thousand Beards. A Cultural History of Facial Hair (Arsenal Pulp Press, 2001) (ISBN 1-55152-107-5)
[编辑] 參考
- A Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs, David W. Bercot, Editor, pg 66-67.
