Kesatuan Republik Sosialis Soviet

Kesatuan Republik Sosialis Soviet (juga dikenali sebagai Kesatuan Soviet atau USSR atau KSSR) merupakan sebuah negara sosialis yang wujud pada 1922 - 1991. Dari 1945 hinggalah perpecahannya, ia merupakan salah satu kuasa besar dunia selain Amerika Syarikat.

Kesatuan ini merupakan sebuah negara yang sangat luas dan ia bersempadan dengan 12 buah negara, enam dari benua Eropah dan enam lagi dari benua Asia. Di Asia jiran-jirannya ialah Korea Utara, Cina, Mongolia, Afghanistan, Iran, dan Turki; di Eropah, ia bersempadan dengan Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Norway, dan Finland. Selat Bering di timur kesatuan ini, memisahkannya dari "musuh"nya yang utama iaitu Amerika Syarikat. Walaupun negara ini terletak di utara Asia, ia dianggap sebagai sebahagian benua Eropah.

Rusia merupakan wilayah terbesar dalam kesatuan ini dan banci 1989 menunjukkan penduduknya adalah seramai 145 juta orang atau lebihkurang 50.8 % jumlah penduduk keseluruhan di sini. Terdapat dua puluh dua bangsa yang mempunyai lebih 1 juta penduduk, dimana lima belas mempunyai kesatuan republiknya yang tersendiri. Antara bangsa yang terbesar ialah bangsa Slav, Baltik, Caucasus, dan Asia Tengah.

Jadual isi kandungan

1 Sejarah
2 Politik
3 Pemimpin KSSR
4 Hubungan Luar Negara
5 Ekonomi
6 Geografi
7 Demografi dan masyarakat
- 7.1 Kewarganegaraan
- 7.2 Kumpulan-kumpulan Agama
8 Kebudayaan
9 Perayaan Umum
10 Audio
11 Lihat juga
12 Rujukan
13 Bacaan tambahan
14 Pautan luar

[Sunting] Sejarah

Kejatuhan Empayar Rusia pada Mac 1917, menandakan titik permulaan Kesatuan Republik Sosialis Soviet. Revolusi ini dicetus oleh rakyat Petrograd (kini dipanggil Leningrad) yang bangun menentang regim Tsar yang zalim dan meneruskan tentangan mereka sehinggalah Tsar Nicholas II turun takhta. Apabila kerajaan beliau tumbang, kuasanya telah diambilalih oleh perwakilan pilihan rakyat Duma, yang membentuk sebuah kerajaan sementara. Namun demikian pada November 1917 kerajaan ini pula telah dijatuhkan oleh golongan Bolshevik, dibawah pimpinan Vladimir I. Lenin. Golongan Bolshevik (yang memanggil diri mereka komunis pada 1918) telah berjaya menewaskan Bolshevik selepas perang saudara yang berlarutan selama tiga tahun (1918-21). Mereka mengambil kuasa secara rasminya pada Disember 1922 dan menubuhkan Kesatuan Republik Sosialis Soviet (Kesatuan Soviet), yang merangkumi kesemua wilayah jajahan bekas Empayar Rusia. Kerajaan yang baru ini telah mengharamkan semua organisasi politik dan melancarkan pemerintahan satu parti one-party rule, di mana kerajaan pusat mengawal semua aspek politik, ekonomi, sosial, dan budaya rakyatnya. Lenin, sebagai ketua parti Komunis, telah ditabalkan sebagai pemerintah pertama negara ini.

Selepas kematian Lenin pada 1924, beliau digantikan oleh Joseph V. Stalin. Stalin merupakan seorang yang jauh lebih kejam dari Lenin dan beliau telah memaksa pengindustrian serta pertanian secara kolektif secara besar-besaran di negara ini. Disamping itu, banyak syarikat swasta dan kawasan pertanian telah dirampas oleh kerajaannnya. Ini telah mengakibatkan rakyatnya hidup dalam penderitaan dan sengsara. Berjuta-juta rakyatnya telah dibunuh, ditahan atau dibiarkan kebuluran. Selain itu beliau telah membunuh para pembangkang kerajaan. Oleh itu era pemerintahan beliau dikenali sebagai the Great Terror. Namun demikian, polisi Stalin telah berjaya dan wilayah-wilayah Soviet membangun dengan amat pesatnya, walaupun pembangunan adalah lebih kepada industri berat dan ketenteraan dan bukannya berdasarkan kehendak pengguna. Stalin yakin pembangunan ekonomi yang pesat adalah mustahak untuk survival Kesatuan Soviet.

Beliau begitu bimbang dengan peperangan dan serangan pihak Jerman. Oleh itu satu perjanjian telah ditandatangani pada 1939 iaitu Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact, yang membolehkan kerajaanya mengambil bahagian timur Poland (Ukraine barat), wilayah-wilayah Baltik, dan Bessarabia. Walaupun begitu, perjanjian ini telah dicabuli oleh pihak Nazi yang menceroboh Kesatuan Soviet bermula pada Jun 1941. Selepas kekalahan demi kekalahan di tangan tentera Jerman, Tentera Merah the Red Army akhirnya berjaya membendung kemaraan Jerman pada 1943, dan pada 1945, menduduki sebahagian besar Eropah Timur termasuk sebahagian Jerman (iaitu Jerman Timur). Walaupun lebih 20 juta rakyat Soviet terkorban akibat Perang Dunia II, penduduk di seluruh dunia gerun dengan kehebatan bala tentera Soviet.

Era pasca-perang menyaksikan Kesatuan Soviet mengubah pendudukan militarinya di Eropah Timur kepada dominasi politik dan ekonomi, dimana regim-regim pro-komunis di bawah pantauan Moscow telah diangkat sebagai pemerintah. Selain itu, kerajaan komunis Soviet telah berusaha untuk mengembangkan sayapnya ke negara-negara luar termasuk negara jirannya seperti Finland dan Afghanistan. Ini telah menerima reaksi negatif dari negara-negara barat, lalu tercetuslah perang yang dipanggil Perang Dingin. Dalam masa yang sama, Stalin terpaksa membina semula ekonomi Soviet yang telah runtuh akibat perang, sambil meneruskan polisi lamanya iaitu membangunkan industri berat dan ketenteraan, serta menindas para pembangkang dan melanggar hak asasi manusia.

Askar-Askar Tentera Merah berdiri di atas Reichstag, Berlin, selepas kejatuhan Nazi Jerman

Selepas kematian Stalin pada 1953, Nikita S. Khrushchev beransur-ansur menjadi ketua Soviet yang dominan. Beliau cuba membawa kelainan dengan membidas cara pemerintahan Stalin yang mengutamakan kezaliman dan penindasan. Walaupun begitu, beliau meneruskan polisi luar bersifat konfrontasi terhadap negara Barat. Era beliau dikenali dengan perlumbaan senjata nuklear dan penjelajahan angkasa lepas. Walaupun begitu penglibatannya dalam krisis peluru berpandu Cuba, yang hampir-hampir mencetuskan peperangan nuklear, telah menjadi punca kejatuhannya sebagai ketua parti dan ketua negara pada 1964. Pengganti Kruschev ialah Leonid I. Brezhnev yang meneruskan polisinya iaitu détente dengan negara Barat and penumpuan kepada perindustrian berat dan ketenteraan.

Selepas kematian Brezhnev pada 1982, sistem politik, ekonomi dan budaya negara telah dikawal oleh birokrasi yang konservatif, dan berusia. Pengganti beliau, Iurii V. Andropov dan Konstantin U. Chernenko, memegang kuasa dalam waktu yang sangat singkat dan tidak membawa banyak perubahan. Sewaktu Gorbachev dipilih sebagai setiausaha agung CPSU dan ketua negara Soviet pada 1985, kemelut dalam sistem sosialis Soviet telah menjadi semakin teruk. Akibatnya, Gorbachev terpaksa mengumumkan perubahan secara mendadak untuk membangunkan semula negara, dan beliau memulakan beberapa siri program pembaharuan yang dipanggil perestroika, glasnost, dan demokratizatsiia.

Namun demikian, usaha beliau untuk mengadakan reformasi politik dan ekonomi tidak mencapai matlamatnya. Malah, ia telah mencetuskan huru-hara dan kemelut politik di peringkat nasional. Ditambah pula dengan masalah ekonomi yang masih berlarutan. Disamping itu beberapa bangsa di dalam kesatuan ini telah mendesak kerajaan untuk memberi wilayah mereka lebih autonomi politik dan ekonomi; Bahkan ada jua yang mahukan kemerdekaan sepenuhnya dari Kesatuan Soviet. Pergolakan antara wilayah yang telah dikawal oleh regim Soviet selama ini telah meletus dan ramai orang telah terkorban. Sistem sosialis autoritarian menjadi semakin goyah dan agak lambat bertindak untuk mengatasi krisis sosial tersebut. Pada 1990an, dasar perestroika Gorbachev telah gagal membawa pemulihan ekonomi kepada rakyat, manakala glasnost' dan demokratizatsiia hanya melonggarkan kawalan regim terhadap rakyatnya.

Satu referendum untuk pengekalan USSR telah diadakan pada 17 Mac, 1991, dengan populasi mengundi untuk pengekalan kesatuan berkenaan di kebanyakan republik. Referendum berkenaan telah memberikan Gorbachev satu kelebihan yang kecil, dan pada musim panas 1991 satu perjanjian kesatuan telah dirangka dan dipersetujui oleh kebanyakan republik yang mana ia akan menukarkan Kesatuan Republik Sosialis Soviet kepada federal yang lebih longgar. Tandatangan Perjanjian itu bagaimanapun diganggu oleh satu rampasan kuasa bulan Ogos, - satu cubaan rampasan kuasa terhadap Mikhail Gorbachev oleh ahli konservatif Parti Kommunis, merujuk kepada "Hardliners" media Barat. Selepas rampasan kuasa itu ditumpaskan , Yeltsin menjadi wira manakala kuasa Gorbachev telah berkurang dengan banyaknya. Perimbangan kuasa sekarang lebih memihak kepada republik-republik berkenaan. Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania telah diisytiharkan merdeka, manakala 12 republik yang lain menyambung kembali perbincangan tentang model kesatuan yang lebih longgar lagi. Pada 8 December 1991, presiden-presiden Russia, Ukraine dan Belarus telah menandatangani Belavezha Accords yang mengisytiharkan kesatuan berkenaan dibubarkan dan Komenwel Negara-negara Merdeka ditubuhkan untuk menggantikannya. Sementara ramai yang masih tertanya-tanya siapa yang mempunyai kuasa untuk membubarkan kesatuan berkenaan, pada 25 December 1991, Gorbachev meletakkan jawatan president USSR dan memberikan kuasa kepada Boris Yeltsin. Hari berikutnya "Supreme Soviet", badan kerajaan tertinggi Kesatuan Soviet, membubarkan dirinya. Ini secara umumnya diisyhtiharkan sebagai rasmi, pembubaran akhir USSR sebagai satu kerajaan yang berfungsi. Kebanyakan organisasi seperti tentera merah dan Red Army and Militia forces menyambungkan tugas mereka tetapi akhirnya dibubarkan atau diserap kedalam negara-negara merdeka yang baru.

[Sunting] Politik

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Parti Kongres CPSU

Rencana utama: Politik di Kesatuan Soviet

Di bawah perlembagaan negara, hanya parti komunis Kesatuan Soviet (CPSU) dibenarkan untuk mengawal jentera kerajaan dan membuat keputusan mengenai ekonomi dan hal masyarakat. CPSU menyokong ideologi Marxisme-Leninisme dan beroperasi berdasarkan prinsip democratik centralisme. Organisasi utama CPSU ialah: Politburo, badan kerajaan agung; Sekretariat, pengawal birokrasi parti; dan Jawatankuasa Pusat (Central Committee), forum yang membincangkan polisi parti. Pada 1987 keahlian CPSU telah mencapai lebih 19 juta orang (9.7 peratus penduduk dewasa pada tahun 1987), kebanyakan lelaki dari golongan profesional. Sebilangan besar ahli parti memegang jawatan penting di agensi-agensi kerajaan diseluruh kesatuan ini.

Kerajaan boleh dianggap sebagai boneka parti CPSU dan akan melaksanakan segala yang telah diluluskan oleh parti ini termasuk perkara-perkara berkaitan ekonomi, keselamatan dalaman dan isu-isu sosial. Pada 1988 Perlembagaan telah dipinda untuk mewujudkan badan yang baru dipanggil "Congress of People's Deputies", badan legislatif dan eksekutif tertinggi; terdiri dari 2,250 "deputies", dimana 87 peratus adalah ahli atau calon ahli CPSU members or candidate members and some of whom selected in first multicandidate (although not multiparty) elections since early Soviet period; slated to meet once a year for a few days; met for first time in May 1989; deputies openly discussed issues, elected a chairman, and selected about 542 deputies from among its membership to constitute a reorganized, bicameral Supreme Soviet, a standing legislature slated to remain in session six to eight months annually. Prior to 1989, former Supreme Soviet was constitutionally highest organ of legislative and executive authority but met only a few days annually; its Presidium managed affairs throughout year. Council of Ministers administered party decisions, mainly regarding economic management, by delegating authority to its Presidium; chairman of Council of Ministers also sat on CPSU Politburo.

Judicial System: Supreme Court, highest judicial body, had little power, lacking authority to determine constitutionality of laws, to interpret laws, or to strike laws down.

In practice, however, the government differed markedly from Western systems. In the late 1980s, the CPSU performed many functions that governments of other countries usually perform. For example, the party decided on the policy alternatives that the government ultimately implemented. The government merely ratified the party's decisions to lend them an aura of legitimacy. The CPSU used a variety of mechanisms to ensure that the government adhered to its policies. The party, using its nomenklatura authority, placed its loyalists in leadership positions throughout the government, where they were subject to the norms of democratic centralism. Party bodies closely monitored the actions of government ministries, agencies, and legislative organs.

The content of the Soviet Constitution differed in many ways from typical Western constitutions. It generally described existing political relationships, as determined by the CPSU, rather than prescribing an ideal set of political relationships. The Constitution was long and detailed, giving technical specifications for individual organs of government. The Constitution included political statements, such as foreign policy goals, and provided a theoretical definition of the state within the ideological framework of Marxism-Leninism. The CPSU leadership could radically change the constitution or remake it completely, as it did several times throughout its history.

The Council of Ministers acted as the executive body of the government. Its most important duties lay in the administration of the economy. The council was thoroughly under the control of the CPSU, and its chairman - the Soviet prime minister - was always a member of the Politburo. The council, which in 1989 included more than 100 members, was too large and unwieldy to act as a unified executive body. The council's Presidium, made up of the leading economic administrators and led by the chairman, exercised dominant power within the Council of Ministers.

According to the Constitution, as amended in 1988, the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union was the Congress of People's Deputies, which convened for the first time in May 1989. The main tasks of the congress were the election of the standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, and the election of the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, who acted as head of state. Theoretically, the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet wielded enormous legislative power. In practice, however, the Congress of People's Deputies met infrequently and only to approve decisions made by the party, the Council of Ministers, and its own Supreme Soviet. The Supreme Soviet, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and the Council of Ministers had substantial authority to enact laws, decrees, resolutions, and orders binding on the population. The Congress of People's Deputies had the authority to ratify these decisions.

The judiciary was not independent. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts and applied the law, as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts. The Soviet Union lacked an adversarial court procedure known to common law jurisdictions. Rather, Soviet law utilised the system derived from Roman law, where judge, procurator and defense attorney worked collaboratively to establish the truth.

The Soviet Union was a federal state made up of fifteen republics joined together in a theoretically voluntary union. In turn, a series of territorial units made up the republics. The republics also contained jurisdictions intended to protect the interests of national minorities. The republics had their own constitutions, which, along with the all-union Constitution, provide the theoretical division of power in the Soviet Union. In 1989, however, the CPSU and the central government retained all significant authority, setting policies that were executed by republic, provincial, oblast, and district governments.

Untuk perincian mengenai topik ini, sila lihat Soviet law.

[Sunting] Pemimpin KSSR

Rencana utama: List of leaders of the Soviet Union

The official leader of the Soviet Union was the First/General Secretary of the CPSU. The head of government was considered the Premier, and the head of state was considered the President. The Soviet leader could also have one (or both) of these positions, along with the position of General-Secretary of the party.

List of Soviet Premiers

(Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (1923-1946); Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1946-1990); Prime Minister of the USSR (1991))

List of Soviet Presidents

(Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1917-1922); Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR (1922-1938); Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1938-1989); Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1989-1990); President of the Soviet Union (1990-1991))

[Sunting] Hubungan Luar Negara

Main article: Foreign relations of the Soviet Union

Map of Warsaw Pact member states.

Once denied diplomatic recognition by the capitalist world, the Soviet Union had official relations with the majority of the nations of the world by the late 1980s. The Soviet Union also had progressed from being an outsider in international organizations and negotiations to being one of the arbiters of Europe's fate after World War II. A member of the United Nations at its foundation in 1945, the Soviet Union became one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council which gave it the right to veto any of its resolutions (see Soviet Union and the United Nations).

The Soviet Union emerged from World War II as one of the two major world powers, a position maintained for four decades through its hegemony in Eastern Europe (see Eastern Bloc), military strength, aid to developing countries, and scientific research, especially into space technology and weaponry. The Soviet Union's growing influence abroad in the postwar years helped lead to a Communist system of states in Eastern Europe united by military and economic agreements. It overtook the British Empire as a global superpower, both in a military sense and its ability to expand its influence beyond its borders. Established in 1949 as an economic bloc of Communist countries led by Moscow, the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) served as a framework for cooperation among the planned economies of the Soviet Union, and, later, for trade and economic cooperation with the Third World. The military counterpart to the Comecon was the Warsaw Pact. The Soviet economy was also of major importance to Eastern Europe because of imports of vital natural resources from the USSR, such as natural gas.

Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders and ensured its control of the region by transforming the East European countries into stable allies. Soviet troops intervened in the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and cited the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Soviet counterpart to the U.S. Johnson Doctrine and later Nixon Doctrine, and helped oust the Czechoslovak government in 1968, sometimes referred to as the Prague Spring.

In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR's approchement with the West and what Mao perceived as Khrushchev's revisionism led to the Sino-Soviet split. This resulted in a break throughout the global Communist movement and Communist regimes in Albania and Cambodia choosing to ally with China in place of the USSR. For a time, war between the former allies appeared to be a possibility; while relations would cool during the 1970s, they would not return to normalcy until the Gorbachev era.

During the same period, a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba sparked the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

The KGB (Committee for State Security), served in a fashion as the Soviet counterpart to both the FBI and the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) in the U.S. It ran a massive network of informants throughout the Soviet Union, which was used to monitor violations in law. The foreign wing of the KGB was used to gather intelligence in countries around the globe. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, it was replaced in Russia by the SVR (Foreign Intelligence Service) and the FSB (Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation).

The KGB was not without substantial oversight. The GRU (Main Intelligence Directorate), not publicized by Russia until the end of the Soviet era during perestroika, was created by Lenin in 1918 and served both as a centralized handler of military intelligence and as an institutional check-and-balance for the otherwise relatively unrestricted power of the KGB. Effectively, it served to spy on the spies, and, not surprisingly, the KGB served a similar function with the GRU. As with the KGB, the GRU operated in nations around the world, particularly in Soviet bloc and client states. The GRU continues to operate in Russia today, with resources estimated by some to exceed those of the SVR [1] [2].

Joe 1, the Soviet Union's first atomic bomb

In the 1970s, the Soviet Union achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States. It perceived its own involvement as essential to the solution of any major international problem. Meanwhile, the Cold War gave way to Détente and a more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer clearly split into two clearly opposed blocs. Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two superpowers were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons (see SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty).

By this time, the Soviet Union had concluded friendship and cooperation treaties with a number of states in the non-Communist world, especially among Third World and Non-Aligned Movement states like India and Egypt. Notwithstanding some ideological obstacles, Moscow advanced state interests by gaining military footholds in strategically important areas throughout the Third World. Furthermore, the Soviet Union continued to provide military aid for revolutionary movements in the Third World. For all these reasons, Soviet foreign policy was of major importance to the non-Communist world and helped determine the tenor of international relations.

Although myriad bureaucracies were involved in the formation and execution of Soviet foreign policy, the major policy guidelines were determined by the Politburo of the Communist Party. The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy had been the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over Eastern Europe. Relations with the United States and Western Europe were also of major concern to Soviet foreign policy makers, and relations with individual Third World states were at least partly determined by the proximity of each state to the Soviet border and to Soviet estimates of its strategic significance.

When Mikhail Gorbachev succeeded Konstantin Chernenko as General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985, it signalled a dramatic change in Soviet foreign policy. Gorbachev pursued conciliatory policies towards the West instead of maintaining the Cold War status quo. The Soviet Union ended its occupation of Afghanistan, signed strategic arms reduction treaties with the United States, and allowed its allies in Eastern Europe to determine their own affairs.

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991, the Russian Federation claimed to be the legal successor to the Soviet state on the international stage despite its loss of superpower status. Russian foreign policy repudiated Marxism-Leninism as a guide to action, soliciting Western support for capitalist reforms in post-Soviet Russia.

Untuk perincian mengenai topik ini, sila lihat Military history of the Soviet Union.

[Sunting] Ekonomi

Rencana utama: Economy of the Soviet Union

The DneproGES, one of many hydroelectric power stations in the Soviet Union

Prior to its collapse, the Soviet Union had the largest centrally directed economy in the world. The government established its economic priorities through central planning, a system under which administrative decisions rather than the market determined resource allocation and prices.

Since the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917, the country grew from a largely underdeveloped peasant society with minimal industry to become the second largest industrial power in the world. According to Soviet statistics, the country's share in world industrial production grew from 4 % to 20 % between 1913 and 1980. Although many Western analysts considered these claims to be inflated, the Soviet achievement remained remarkable. Recovering from the calamitous events of World War II, the country's economy had maintained a continuous though uneven rate of growth. Living standards, although still modest for most inhabitants by Western standards, had improved.

Although these past achievements were impressive, in the mid-1980s Soviet leaders faced many problems. Production in the consumer and agricultural sectors was often inadequate (see Agriculture of the Soviet Union and shortage economy). Crises in the agricultural sector reaped catastrophic consequences in the 1930s, when collectivization met widespread resistance from the kulaks, resulting in a bitter struggle of many peasants against the authorities, famine, particularly in Ukraine, but also in the Volga River area and Kazakhstan. In the consumer and service sectors, a lack of investment resulted in black markets in some areas.

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Scientists working on Voskhod 1

In addition, since the 1970s, the growth rate had slowed substantially. Extensive economic development, based on vast inputs of materials and labor, was no longer possible; yet the productivity of Soviet assets remained low compared with other major industrialized countries. Product quality needed improvement. Soviet leaders faced a fundamental dilemma: the strong central controls of the increasingly conservative bureaucracy that had traditionally guided economic development had failed to respond to the complex demands of industry of a highly developed, modern economy.

Conceding the weaknesses of their past approaches in solving new problems, the leaders of the late 1980s were seeking to mold a program of economic reform to galvanize the economy. The leadership, headed by Mikhail Gorbachev, was experimenting with solutions to economic problems with an openness (glasnost) never before seen in the history of the economy. One method for improving productivity appeared to be a strengthening of the role of market forces. Yet reforms in which market forces assumed a greater role would signify a lessening of authority and control by the planning hierarchy, as well as a significant diminuition of social services traditionally provided by the state, such as housing and education.

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An old 10 Soviet rubles banknote, featuring Lenin.

Assessing developments in the economy was difficult for Western observers. The country contained enormous economic and regional disparities. Yet analyzing statistical data broken down by region was a cumbersome process. Furthermore, Soviet statistics themselves might have been of limited use to Western analysts because they are not directly comparable with those used in Western countries. The differing statistical concepts, valuations, and procedures used by Communist and non-Communist economists made even the most basic data, such as the relative productivity of various sectors, difficult to assess.

[Sunting] Geografi

Rencana utama: Geography of the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union occupied the eastern portion of the European continent and the northern portion of the Asian continent. Most of the country was north of 50° north latitude and covered a total area of approximately 22,402,200 square kilometres. Due to the sheer size of the state, the climate varied greatly from subtropical and continental to subarctic and polar. 11 % of the land was arable, 16 % was meadows and pasture, 41 % was forest and woodland, and 32 % was declared "other" (including tundra).

The Soviet Union measured some 10,000 kilometres from Kaliningrad on the Gulf of Gdańsk in the west to Ratmanova Island (Big Diomede Island) in the Bering Strait, or roughly equivalent to the distance from Edinburgh, Scotland, east to Nome, Alaska. From the tip of the Taymyr Peninsula on the Arctic Ocean to the Central Asian town of Kushka near the Afghan border extended almost 5,000 kilometeres of mostly rugged, inhospitable terrain. The east-west expanse of the continental United States would easily fit between the northern and southern borders of the Soviet Union at their extremities.

[Sunting] Demografi dan masyarakat

This map shows the 1974 population density of the Soviet Union.

Rencana utama: Demographics of the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union was one of the world's most ethnically diverse countries, with more than 150 distinct ethnic groups within its borders. The total population was estimated at 293 million in 1991. The majority of the population were Russians (50.78%), followed by Ukrainians (15.45%) and Uzbeks (5.84%). Other ethnic groups included the Georgians, Estonians, Latvians, Lithuanians, Azerbaijanis, Armenians, Tajiks, Chechens, and others. After all Soviet republics gained independence, Russia remained the largest country in the world by area, and still remains one of the most ethnically diverse.

[Sunting] Kewarganegaraan

The extensive multinational empire that the Bolsheviks inherited after their revolution was created by Tsarist expansion over some four centuries. Some nationality groups came into the empire voluntarily, others were brought in by force. Generally, the Russians and most of the non-Russian subjects of the empire shared little in common—culturally, religiously, or linguistically. More often than not, two or more diverse nationalities were collocated on the same territory. Therefore, national antagonisms built up over the years not only against the Russians but often between some of the subject nations as well.

For seventy years, Soviet leaders had maintained that frictions between the many nationalities of the Soviet Union had been eliminated and that the Soviet Union consisted of a family of nations living harmoniously together. However, the national ferment that shook almost every corner of the Soviet Union in the late 1980s proved that seventy years of Communist rule had failed to obliterate national and ethnic differences and that traditional cultures and religions would reemerge given the slightest opportunity. This reality facing Gorbachev and his colleagues meant that, short of relying on the traditional use of force, they had to find alternative solutions in order to prevent the disintegration of the Soviet Union.

The concessions granted national cultures and the limited autonomy tolerated in the union republics in the 1920s led to the development of national elites and a heightened sense of national identity. Subsequent repression and Russianization fostered resentment against domination by Moscow and promoted further growth of national consciousness. National feelings were also exacerbated in the Soviet multinational state by increased competition for resources, services, and jobs.

[Sunting] Kumpulan-kumpulan Agama

Rencana utama: Religion in the Soviet Union

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Ascension church in Perm, Russia

The state was separated from church by the Decree of Council of People's Comissars 1918 January 23. Official figures on the number of religious believers in the Soviet Union were not available in 1989.

But according to various Soviet and Western sources, over one-third of the people in the Soviet Union, an officially atheistic state, professed religious belief. Christianity and Islam had the most believers.

Christians belonged to various churches: Orthodox, which had the largest number of followers; Catholic; and Baptist and various other Protestant sects, the Baptists (Protestants) suffering the most government persecution with children being forbidden to attend home services and church leaders frequently imprisoned.

Government persecution of Christians continued unabated until the fall of the Communist government. There were many churches in the country (7500 Russian Orthodox churches in 1974).

Although there were many ethnic Jews in the Soviet Union, actual practice of Judaism was rare in Communist times. Jews were the victims of state-sponsored anti-semitism and were one of the few Soviet citizens allowed to emigrate from the country.

Other religions, which were practiced by a relatively small number of believers, included Buddhism, Lamaism, and shamanism, a religion based on spiritualism. The role of religion in the daily lives of Soviet citizens varied greatly.

The majority of the Islamic faithful were Sunni. Because Islamic religious tenets and social values of Muslims are closely interrelated, religion appeared to have a greater influence on Muslims than on either Christians or other believers.

Two-thirds of the Soviet population, however, had no religious beliefs. About half the people, including members of the CPSU and high-level government officials, professed atheism. For the majority of Soviet citizens, therefore, religion seemed irrelevant.

[Sunting] Kebudayaan

Rencana utama: Culture of the Soviet Union

Imej:Soviet Young Pioneer in Artek.jpg

A young Soviet Pioneer

All forms of media in the Soviet Union were controlled by the state including television and radio broadcasting, newspaper, magazine and book publishing. This extended to the fine arts including the theatre, opera and ballet. Art and Music was controlled by ownership of distribution and performance venues. Censorship was made in cases where performances did not meet with the favour of the Soviet leadership with newspaper campaigns against offending material and sanctions applied through party controlled professional organizations and courts.

Soviet art
Soviet education
Soviet cinema
Philosophy in the Soviet Union
Soviet television
Broadcasting in the Soviet Union
USSR at the Summer Olympics
USSR at the Winter Olympics
USSR Chess Championship
Palace of Culture
Research in the Soviet Union
Soviet Ballroom dances
Soviet Student Olympiads
Great Soviet Encyclopedia

[Sunting] Perayaan Umum

Tarikh	Nama	Nama Tempatan	Catatan
1 Januari	Tahun Baru	Новый год	Boleh dianggap sebagai perayaan yang terbesar di Kesatuan Soviet. Kebanyakan dari tradisi yang pada asalnya dikaitkan dengan Krismas di Rusia (seperti Father Frost dan pohon fir yang dihiasi) telah dipindahkan kepada Tahun Baru selepas Revolusi Oktober sehinggalah ke hari ini.
7 Januari	Krismas	Рождество	Krismas Ortodoks. Bukan Hari Cuti yang rasmi di Kesatuan Soviet, tidak diendahkan oleh sebahagian besar rakyatnya dan hanya diraikan oleh serious believers. Since the revolution the Orthodox Christmas has been celebrated in Russia as a purely religious holiday. It is now an official holiday in Russia but is still largely celebrated as a religious date unlike in the rest of the world which celebrates it as both;
23 Februari	Hari Tentera Merah	День Советской Армии и Военно-морского флота ("Day of the Soviet Army and Navy")	Formation of the Red Army in February 1918, not a free day. Is currently called День защитника отечества ("Day of the Defender of Motherland") in Russia
8 Mac	Hari Wanita Antarabangsa	Международный женский день	An official holiday marking women's liberation movement, popularly celebrated as a cross between American Mother's Day and Valentine's Day.
12 April	Hari Para Kosmonaut	День космонавтики ("Day of Cosmonautics")	The Day Yuri Gagarin became the first man in Space, in 1961. Not a day off.
1 Mei	Hari Buruh	Первое Мая - День солидарности трудящихся ("International Day of Worker's Solidarity")	Celebrated on May 1 and May 2. Now called День весны и труда ("Celebration of Spring and Labor").
9 Mei	Hari Kemenangan	День Победы	End of Great Patriotic War, marked by capitulation of Nazi Germany, 1945
7 Oktober	Hari Perlembagaan USSR	День Конституции СССР	1977 Constitution of the USSR accepted - December 5 previously
7 November	Revolusi Sosialis Oktober yang Besar	Годовщина Великой октябрьской социалистической революции or Седьмое ноября	Celebrating October Revolution of 1917, one of the most important holidays in Soviet times. It has now been replaced with День примирения и согласия ("Day of Reconciliation and Agreement"), celebrated on a Nov. 4 (at least officially).

[Sunting] Audio

Vladimir Lenin: What Is Soviet Power?^? (Text of the speech)

[Sunting] Lihat juga

Rencana utama: List of Soviet Union-related topics

Post-Soviet states
Prometheism
List of Soviet Leaders
List of premiers of the Soviet Union
List of the presidents of the Soviet Union
Sovietization

[Sunting] Rujukan

Templat:Loc - Kesatuan Soviet

[Sunting] Bacaan tambahan

Brown, Archie, et al, eds.: The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
Gilbert, Martin: The Routledge Atlas of Russian History (London: Routledge, 2002).
Goldman, Minton: The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe (Connecticut: Global Studies, Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc., 1986).
Howe, G. Melvyn: The Soviet Union: A Geographical Survey 2nd. edn. (Estover, UK: MacDonald and Evans, 1983).
Katz, Zev, ed.: Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities (New York: Free Press, 1975).
Rizzi, Bruno: "The bureaucratization of the world : the first English ed. of the underground Marxist classic that analyzed class exploitation in the USSR" , New York, NY : Free Press, 1985

[Sunting] Pautan luar

Lihat galeri mengenai: Kesatuan Soviet di Wikimedia Commons.

Gambar-gambar Kesatuan Soviet - himpunan gambar yang menunjukkan kehidupan harian di Kesatuan Soviet

Templat:Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union

Rencana ini diterjemahkan daripada sebahagian rencana Wikipedia bahasa Inggeris. Bantulah Wikipedia menterjemahkan* lagi seperenggan dua. Bahan-bahan boleh didapati di en:Kesatuan Republik Sosialis Soviet*.
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Kategori: Rencana yang memerlukan terjemahan | Negara | USSR

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