廢奴主義
维基百科，自由的百科全书
廢奴主義，又稱廢除主義、奴隸廢除論，是一場以廢除奴隸制度及其奴隸貿易的政治運動，其運動開始於啟蒙時代，並在19世紀推至高峰，並在很多地方得到大致上的成功。
目录 |
[编辑] 源由
奴隸制有很源遠流長的歷史，世界各地包括古羅馬、古希臘、古埃及、古巴比倫、中國周代等都是行奴隸制的。直至16世紀，歐洲的殖民者走遍世界，並將西非的黑人販賣到歐洲及新世界去，形成了奴隸制度的高峰。18世紀晚期，歐洲開始出現新思潮，啟蒙運動帶給當時人們人權、自由、平等的觀念，他們漸漸覺得奴隸制是一種不道德的行為，廢奴主義開始在各國萌芽。
[编辑] 英國廢奴主義
參看 大西洋奴隸販賣
[编辑] 國內奴隸制
英格蘭的奴隸制早已於1102年定為犯法，最後一名農奴則在17世紀初消失。但18世紀開始，黑奴開始輸入倫敦和愛丁堡作英國人的僕役，但當時的黑奴並不是貿易而得，他們的法律地位一直都是含糊不清。直至1772年，一個名James Somerset的黑奴逃跑了，然後被他的主人Charles Steuart捉回，再把他送去牙買加種甘蔗。由於Somerset在倫敦時已經受洗，他的教父便以「人身保護令」向法院提出訴訟。當時的英格蘭及威爾士高等法院王座法庭院長William Murray, Lord Mansfield於1772年6月22日宣判：「無論有那麼不便，但總要有個決定，我不能說這件案在英格蘭法律之下是准許或認可；所以黑人是應該被釋放。」這便即宣布了奴隸制不存在於英格蘭法律之下，那麼擁有奴隸即等同非法行為。這一判決令到英格蘭境內的一萬至一萬四千名奴隸得到解放，亦表明了其他管轄區實行的奴隸制不等於英格蘭也相同。[1]
在「Somerset案」後，蘇格蘭的黑奴Joseph Knight也好像Somerset一樣逃跑了。這件案在1776年Wedderburn審訊，結果與前案一樣：奴隸制不存在於蘇格蘭法律之下。蘇格蘭最後的本土奴隸於 1799年在煤礦主底下獲得自由。
[编辑] 大英帝國奴隸制
縱使英國國內已廢除奴隸制，但在大英帝國的殖民地如東印度群島和美洲中依然存在。
1783年，反奴隸制運動在英國社會內開始。當Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts （SPG）在倫敦戚普賽街聖瑪莉勒布教堂 舉行1783週年佈道會時，當時的切斯特主教，後來的倫敦主教Dr Beilby Porteus呼籲英格蘭聖公會停止參與販奴並改善教會在巴貝多農莊工作的奴隸生活環境。同年，貴格會成立了首個英國的廢奴組織。此後貴格會在英國的廢奴運動中一直擔任著重要的角色。1783年6月17日，議員Sir Cecil Wray將貴格會的請願交給政府。
1787年5月，為打擊英國商人的大西洋奴隸販賣 活動，「廢除奴隸販賣委員會」（Committee for the Abolition of the Slave Trade）成立，Granville Sharp、Thomas Clarkson、貴格會及其他福音改革運動中的克拉珀姆教派都是十二個成員的其中之一，威廉·威爾伯福斯（William Wilberforce）成為他們在議會的代表，Clarkson則負責研究及收集關於奴隸販賣的資料。隨著廢奴運動的發展，地區的組織紛紛成立，他們通過會面去進行運動，包括派發小冊子和請願。他們其中一件個別的計劃便是在逼使政府於1787年在獅子山的現時首都自由城建市，以供原來準備販賣往倫敦工作的奴隸生活。
廢奴主義者的運動不僅受到貴格會支持，其他宗教團體例如浸信會、衛理會等，甚至工人、婦女、兒童、非政治團體都爭相支持。1796年John Gabriel Stedman出版了一本關於他在蘇利南鎮壓當地前奴隸五年的回憶錄，遣責奴隸的殘忍待遇。這本書更加上了很多由William Blake和Francesco Bartolozzi描述的影像，成為了廢奴主義文學的重要一部份。
[编辑] 1807年奴隸販賣法案
1807年3月25日，英國國會通過了廢除奴隸販賣法案（Slave Trade Act） ，將販奴在大英帝國境內定為非法，並實施向英國奴隸船徵收每一個奴隸£100的罰金。但這法案的阻嚇性不大，一些奴販仍然繼續貿易，當他們被英國皇家海軍發現時，他們總會將一些奴隸推下海以減少罰款。有見及此，1827年英國便宣佈參與販奴者將會秘密地被施以死刑。
[编辑] 1833年廢奴法案
1807年的法案雖然杜絕了販奴問題，但奴隸制依然存在。1820年代，廢奴運動又開始變得活躍。1827年，反奴隸制協會（Anti-Slavery Society）成立，當中有不少便是當年參與過反奴隸販賣的廢奴主義者。這次運動則以全面廢除奴隸制為目標。
1833年8月23日 ，廢奴法案（Slavery Abolition Act）定英國殖民地的奴隸制為不合法。1834年8月1日，大英帝國下的所有奴隸全部解放，但仍然要為前主人工作至1838年 作為適應期。加勒比的農莊主則獲償£2千萬。
[编辑] 廢奴後的運動
由1839年開始，英國及其他地方的反奴隸制協會一起合作去廢奴，其中較具影響力便是在美國的廢奴運動上。這些協會亦向政府施壓，要求遏制一些非法販奴。現今亦一直有一些組織如反奴隸制國際等。
[编辑] 法國廢奴主義
參看 殖民主義
大西洋奴隸販賣給法國在東印度群島的甘蔗種植業提供了豐富的人力資源。1689年，路易十四的《黑法》正式允許在法國所有殖民地販賣奴隸 。到了1789年法國大革命發生，法國殖民地海地亦乘機在1791年發動革命，宣布廢除奴隸制。法國本土的廢奴運動本土則是由Henri Grégoire和Jacques Pierre Brissot的黑人之友協會（Société des Amis des Noirs）所領導，其工作為在城市內宣傳反奴隸制。1794年2月4日，第一共和正式宣布廢奴。法國殖民地法律的第一條便寫道：「奴隸制被廢除」，第二條則是「奴隸主會獲（金錢）賠償」。不久拿破崙執政，並重新設回奴隸制，1802年5月10日 colonel Delgrès呼籲發起暴動去抵抗拿破崙，然而結果暴動被鎮壓。直至1848年4月27日 第二共和才再一次廢除奴隸制。
[编辑] 俄國廢奴主義
沙俄的農奴制雖然嚴格來說不算是奴隸，但他們沒有選擇工作地點或不工作的自由。1861年3月3日，沙皇亞歷山大二世解放農奴，因此被稱為「解放者沙皇」。
1930年代，史太林開始行社會主義的計劃經濟，不准許農民不工作和離開他們的田地，又沒收了私有財產，被一些人認為是奴隸制的復辟。
[编辑] 美國廢奴主義
美國的廢奴運動歷史明顯地比前述的國家較為激烈及複雜。它不僅為美國18世紀末至19世紀初的歷史主軸，而且更爆發了美國歷史上唯一一次的內戰——南北戰爭。
美國從殖民時代開始已經實行奴隸制。1775年4月14日，第一個美國的廢奴主義協會Society for the Relief of Free Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage 由貴格會於費城成立。後因美國革命時英軍佔領費城而停止運作，在1784年重新運作，由班傑明•富蘭克林 出任第一任會長。[2]而第一篇呼籲廢奴在《賓夕法尼亞雜誌》發表的文章《在美洲的非洲奴隸》則相傳為托馬斯•潘恩所寫。1776年，托瑪斯·傑弗遜為美國獨立起草了《美國獨立宣言》其中一個篇章涉及廢除奴隸制度，後來卻在刑事法庭上被重寫時移除。
[编辑] 廢奴主義在北州
革命集合在行動行動在每個狀態廢除奴隸制。這在每個北州成功在1804 年以前; 雖然解放是很逐漸的仍然有十二"永久學徒" 在1860 年人口調查。
主要組織的身體主張這項改革是朋友的社會, 賓夕法尼亞反對奴隸制社會, 和紐約解放(奴隸)社會。後者由強有力的聯邦制擁護者政客、約翰・傑伊, 亞歷山大・哈密爾頓, 和共和黨Aaron Burr。由於NYMS, 1799 年紐約的可觀的努力廢除了奴隸制(逐漸) 。根據奴隸的數字, 這是最大的解放在美國歷史上(在1863 之前) 。1804 年新澤西是最後北州廢除奴隸制(再以逐漸時尚) 。在1787 的憲法大會年, 然而, 允許聯邦政府廢除國際販賣奴隸, 它1808 年的協議被達成了。所有狀態那時通過了各自的法律廢除或嚴厲地限制貿易, 所有除了喬治亞州在1798 年以前。
[编辑] 殖民地化向賴比瑞亞
在1820s 和1830s 美國殖民化社會是主要車使提案最終廢除奴隸制。它在全國範圍內有寬廣的支持, 與領導像Henry Clay 。它創造了美國殖民地在非洲, 利比里亞和協助數以萬計黑色(前奴隸和自由人民) 行動那裡。疾病環境是極端, 和大多移民迅速死, 足夠但生存統治利比里亞入1980。年代非裔美國人丟失了興趣在事業上, 如同廢除主義者由駐軍影響譴責了它在1840 年以後。
[编辑] 駐軍和直接解放
A radical shift came in the 1830s, led by William Lloyd Garrison, who demanded "immediate emancipation, gradually achieved.". That is he demanded that slave-owners repent immediately, and set up a system of emancipation. After 1840 "abolition" usually referred to positions like Garrison's; it was largely an ideological movement led by about 3000 people, including freed blacks. Abolitionism had a strong religious base including Quakers, and (among Yankees) people converted by the revivalist fervor of the Second Great Awakening in the North in the 1830s. Belief in abolition contributed to the breaking away of some small denominations, such as the Free Methodist Church.
Evangelical abolitionists founded some colleges, most notably Bates College in Maine and Oberlin College in Ohio. The well established colleges, such as Harvard, Yale and Princeton, generally opposed abolition[來源請求], although the movement did attract such figures as Yale president Noah Porter and Harvard president Thomas Hill.
In the North most opponents of slavery supported other modernizing reform movements such as the temperance movement, public schooling, and prison- and asylum-building. They split bitterly on the role of women's activism.
Daniel O'Connell, the Roman Catholic leader of the Irish in Ireland, supported the abolition of slavery in the British Empire and in America. O'Connell had played a leading role in securing [[Catholic Emancipation] (the removal of the civil and political disabilities of Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland) and he was one of William Lloyd Garrison's models. Garrison recruited him to the cause of American abolitionism and O'Connell, the black abolitionist Charles Lenox Remond, and Theobold Mayhew, the temperance priest, organized a petition with 60,000 signatures urging the Irish of America to support abolition. O'Connell also spoke in America for abolition.
Nevertheless, the Repeal Associations in the United States largely took a proslavery position. Several reasons have been suggested for this: that the Irish, who were in any case competing with blacks for jobs, disliked having the same arguments used for Irish and for black freedom; that they were loyal to the United States Constitution, which defended their liberties, and disliked the fundamentally extraconstitutional position of the Abolitionists, and that they perceived abolitionism as Protestant. In addition, the slaveholders had no hesitation in voicing support for the freedom of Ireland, a white nation outside the United States.
Radical Irish nationalists - those who broke with O'Connell over his refusal to contemplate the violent overthrow of British rule in Ireland - had a diversity of views about slavery. John Mitchel, who spent the years 1853 to 1875 in America, was a passionate propagandist slavery; three of his sons fought in the Confederate Army. On the other hand, his former close associate Thomas Francis Meagher served as a Brigadier General in the United States Army during the American Civil War.
The Roman Catholic church in America was centered in slaveholding Maryland, and, despite a firm stand for the spiritual equality of blacks, supported slavery. The Bishop of New York denounced O'Connell's petition as a forgery, and if genuine, unwarranted foreign interference; the Bishop of Charleston declared that, while Catholic tradition opposed slave trading, it had nothing against slavery. No American bishop supported abolition before the Civil War; even while that war went on, they freely communicated with slave-owners. One historian observed that ritualist churches separate themselves from heretics rather than sinners; he observes the same acceptance of slavery among the Episcopalians and the Lutherans. (Indeed, one Episcopal bishop was a Confederate general.) [3]
After O'Connell's failure, the American Repeal Associations broke up; but the Garrisonians rarely relapsed into the "bitter hostility" of American Protestants towards the Roman Church. Some antislavery men joined the Know Nothings, in the collapse of the parties; but Edmund Quincy ridiculed it as a mushroom growth, a distraction from the real issues; and although the Know-Nothing legislature of Massachusetts honored Garrison, he continued to oppose them as violators of fundamental rights to freedom of worship.
Even the evangelical Protestants William Lloyd Garrison and John Brown, however, regarded the United States Declaration of Independence as being as important as the Bible. In 1854, Garrison wrote:
I am a believer in that portion of the Declaration of American Independence in which it is set forth, as among self-evident truths, "that all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." Hence, I am an abolitionist. Hence, I cannot but regard oppression in every form – and most of all, that which turns a man into a thing – with indignation and abhorrence. Not to cherish these feelings would be recreancy to principle. They who desire me to be dumb on the subject of slavery, unless I will open my mouth in its defense, ask me to give the lie to my professions, to degrade my manhood, and to stain my soul. I will not be a liar, a poltroon, or a hypocrite, to accommodate any party, to gratify any sect, to escape any odium or peril, to save any interest, to preserve any institution, or to promote any object. Convince me that one man may rightfully make another man his slave, and I will no longer subscribe to the Declaration of Independence. Convince me that liberty is not the inalienable birthright of every human being, of whatever complexion or clime, and I will give that instrument to the consuming fire. I do not know how to espouse freedom and slavery together.[4]
[编辑] 美國廢奴主義的歷史
- In detail: Origins of the American Civil War, History of slavery in the United States
Although there were several groups that opposed slavery (such as The Society for the Relief of Free American Black People Negroes Unlawfully Held in Bondage), at the time of the founding of the Republic, there were few states which prohibited slavery outright. The Constitution had several provisions which accommodated slavery, although none used the word.
All of the states north of Maryland began to gradually abolish slavery between 1781 and 1804; all the states abolished or severely limited the slave trade, Rhode Island in 1774 (Virginia had also attempted to do so before the Revolution, but the Privy Council had vetoed the act), all the others by 1786, Georgia in 1798. These northern emancipation acts typically provided that slaves born before the law was passed would be freed at a certain age, and so remnants of slavery lingered; in New Jersey, a dozen "permanent apprentices" were recorded in the 1860 census. The first state to abolish slavery outright was Massachusetts, where a court decision in 1781 interpreted the Massachusetts Constitution of 1780 (which asserted in its first article, All men are created free and equal...) as an abolition of slavery. This was later explicitly codified in a new version of the Massachusetts Constitution written by John Adams.[5]
The institution remained solid in the South, however, and that region's customs and social beliefs evolved into a strident defense of slavery in response to the rise of a stronger anti-slavery stance in the North. The anti-slavery sentiment, which existed before 1830 among many people in the North, was joined after 1840 by the vocal few of the abolitionist movement. The majority of Northerners rejected the extreme positions of the abolitionists; Abraham Lincoln, for example. Indeed many northern leaders including Lincoln, Stephen Douglas (the Democratic nominee in 1860), John C. Fremont (the Republican nominee in 1856), and Ulysses S. Grant married into slaveowning southern families without any moral qualms.
Abolitionism as a principle was far more than just the wish to limit the extent of slavery. Most Northerners recognized that slavery existed in the South and the Constitution did not allow the federal government to intervene there. Most Northerners favored a policy of gradual and compensated emancipation. After 1849 abolitionists rejected this and demanded it ended immediately and everywhere. John Brown was the only abolitionist known to have actually planned a violent insurrection, thought David Walker promoted the idea. The abolitionist movement was strengthened by the activities of free African-Americans, especially in the black church, who argued that the old Biblical justifications for slavery contradicted the New Testament. African-American activists and their writings were rarely heard outside the black community; however, they were tremendously influential to some sympathetic whites, most prominently the first white activist to reach prominence, William Lloyd Garrison, who was its most effective propagandist. Garrison's efforts to recruit eloquent spokesmen led to the discovery of ex-slave Frederick Douglass, who eventually became a prominent activist in his own right. Eventually, Douglass would publish his own, widely distributed abolitionist newspaper, the North Star.
In the early 1850s, the American abolitionist movement split into two camps over the issue of the United States Constitution. This issue arose in the late 1840s after the publication of The Unconstitutionality of Slavery by Lysander Spooner. The Garrisonians, led by Garrison and Wendell Phillips, publicly burned copies of the Constitution, called it a pact with slavery, and demanded its abolition and replacement. Another camp, led by Lysander Spooner, Gerrit Smith, and eventually Douglass, considered the Constitution to be an antislavery document. Using an argument based upon Natural Law and a form of social contract theory, they said that slavery existed outside of the Constitution's scope of legitimate authority and therefore should be abolished.
Another split in the abolitionist movement was along class lines. The artisan republicanism of Robert Dale Owen and Frances Wright stood in stark contrast to the politics of prominent elite abolitionists such as industrialist Arthur Tappan and his evangelist brother Lewis. While the former pair opposed slavery on a basis of solidarity of "wage slaves" with "chattel slaves", the Whiggish Tappans strongly rejected this view, opposing the characterization of Northern workers as "slaves" in any sense. (Lott, 129-130)
Many American abolitionists took an active role in opposing slavery by supporting the Underground Railroad. This was made illegal by the federal Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, but participants like Harriet Tubman, Henry Highland Garnet, Alexander Crummell, Amos Noë Freeman and others continued regardless with the final destination for slaves moved to Canada. Two landmark events for the movement were the Oberlin-Wellington Rescue and John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry.
After the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation on January 1, 1863, abolitionists continued to pursue the freedom of slaves in the remaining slave states, and to better the conditions of black Americans generally. The passage of the Thirteenth Amendment in 1865 officially ended slavery. See Reconstruction for details.
[编辑] 國際廢奴日
各國廢奴的日子：
- 瑞典：1335年（殖民地St Barthélemy於1847年廢奴）
- 葡萄牙：1761年
- 英格蘭及威爾士：1772年 「Somerset案」後
- 蘇格蘭：1776年「Wedderburne案」後
- 海地：1791年近十萬奴隸起義後
- 加拿大安大略區域：1793年《反蓄奴法案》（Act Against Slavery）
- 法國 （首次）：1794年至1802年 包括所有殖民地（一些被英國佔領殖民地則未能實行）
- 阿根廷：1813年
- 大哥倫比亞 （厄瓜多爾、哥倫比亞、巴拿馬、 委內瑞拉）：1821年的漸進解放計劃（1852年哥倫比亞及1854年委內瑞拉）
- 智利：1823年
- 墨西哥：1829年
- 大英帝國：1833年 包括所有殖民地（真正實行於1834年8月1日，東印度則於1838年8月1日）
- 模里西斯：1835年2月1日於英國政府執行下，並為公眾假期。
- 丹麥：1848年，包括所有殖民地
- 法國（二次）：1848年，包括所有殖民地
- 秘魯：1851年
- 俄羅斯：1861年
- 荷蘭：1863年，包括所有殖民地
- 美國：1865年， 美國內戰後（某些州份在內戰前經已廢奴）
- 波多黎各：1873年及古巴：1880年（當時皆為西班牙殖民地）
- 巴西：1888年
- 韓國：1894年 （世襲奴隸制終於1886年）
- 桑給巴爾：1897年 （奴隸貿易廢止於1873年）
- 中國：1910年
- 緬甸：1929年
- 衣索比亞：1936年，在意大利軍隊佔領之下廢除（詳見第二次意大利-衣索比亞戰爭）。當衣索比亞於1942年二戰期間重新獲得獨立時， 其皇帝 海爾•塞拉西一世亦沒有重新恢復奴隸制。
- 西藏：1959年，由中華人民共和國廢除。
- 沙烏地阿拉伯：1962年
- 茅利塔尼亞：1980年（由法國於1905年名義上廢除，後在1961年的新憲法中暗示，後在同年的10月加入聯合國 時變為明顯），但依然在實行。
[编辑] 現今奴隸制
雖然今時今日，奴隸制在大部份的國家被禁止（以茅利塔尼亞例外，那裡仍公開地實行奴隸制），但奴隸制仍然在被世界各地秘密地實行，如中東。
今時今日的奴隸制一般有三種類型：薪水奴隸，合約奴隸，傳統奴隸。
- 薪水奴隸在未發展地區最為普遍。由於那裡的窮人不可能冒失業的風險，所以雇主能夠輕易以低薪雇用勞工，而童工多數被認為是薪水奴隸。
- 合約奴隸通常是一些窮人或文盲受騙而簽下了一些不平等合約而成為奴隸。
- 傳統奴隸至今依然在地下活動中十分活躍。同樣的手法已進行了很多個世紀：他們大多數是婦孺，被誘拐然後賣到海外。男的通常會以勞工賣出，女的則會賣給富翁為妾或成為妓女。這些誘拐行為通常發生在南美、非洲、前蘇聯集團的國家，而賣去亞洲、中東等地。
[编辑] 現今廢奴主義
現今的廢奴組織有反奴隸制國際（Anti-Slavery International）、解放奴隸等（Free the Slaves）。
1948年12月10日，聯合國安理會宣佈了世界人權宣言，其中第四條便提出「任何人不容使為奴役；奴隸制度及奴隸販賣，不論出於何種方式，悉應予以禁止。」
自1997年 起，美國司法部便與Coalition of Immokalee Workers合作起訴六人在農業中使用奴隸，此案令超過1000個工作在佛羅里達州南部的番茄及橙園的奴隸得到解放。不過這只是全球反農業及性服務奴隸制行動其中一個例子。
在美國，一些要求廢除死刑及爭取移民權的人士亦被認為是繼承了廢奴運動的衣缽。
[编辑] 紀念
現今世界各地皆有不同的方法去紀念廢奴運動。聯合國安理會亦將2004年定為International Year to Commemorate the Struggle against Slavery and its Abolition，以紀念第一個黑人獨立國家——海地的成立，同時亦舉辦了一些展覽、節目、研究計劃等。
[编辑] 著名反奴隸制人士
註：並非所有人皆是廢奴主義者
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[编辑] 參考文獻
[编辑] 英國及世界
- Brown, Christopher Leslie. Moral Capital: Foundations of British Abolitionism (2006)
- Davis, David Brion, The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-1823 (1999); The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (1988)
- Gould, Philip. Barbaric Traffic: Commerce and Antislavery in the Eighteenth-Century Atlantic World Harvard U. Press, 2003. 258 pp.
- Thistlethwaite, Frank. Anglo-American Connection in the Early Nineteenth Century. 1971. ISBN 0846215403.
[编辑] 美國
- Abzug, Robert H. Cosmos Crumbling: American Reform and the Religious Imagination. Oxford, 1994. ISBN 0195037529.
- Bacon, Jacqueline. The Humblest May Stand Forth: Rhetoric, Empowerment, and Abolition U. of South Carolina Press, 2002. 352 pp.
- Barnes, Gilbert H. The Anti-Slavery Impulse 1830-1844. reprint 1964. ISBN 0781253071.
- Blue, Frederick J. No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics. Louisiana State U. Press 2005. 301 pp.
- Bordewich, Fergus M. Bound for Canaan: The Underground Railroad and the War for the Soul of America. HarperCollins, 2005. 510 pp.
- Davis, David Brion, Inhuman Bondage : The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World (2006)
- Filler, Louis. The Crusade Against Slavery 1830-1860. 1960. ISBN 0917256298. survey of movement in U.S.
- Griffin, Clifford S. Their Brothers' Keepers: Moral Stewardship in the United States 1800-1865. Rutgers UP, 1967. ISBN 0313240590.
- Harrold, Stanley. The Abolitionists and the South, 1831-1861. University Press of Kentucky, 1995. ISBN 081310968X.
- Harrold, Stanley. The American Abolitionists. Longman, 2000. ISBN 0582357381, short survey
- Harrold, Stanley. The Rise of Aggressive Abolitionism: Addresses to the Slaves. University Press of Kentucky, 2004. ISBN 0813122902.
- Huston, James L. "The Experiential Basis of the Northern Antislavery Impulse." Journal of Southern History 56:4 (November 1990): 609-640.
- John R. McKivigan The War Against Proslavery Religion: Abolitionism and the Northern Churches, 1830-1865 (1984)
- McPherson, James M. The Abolitionist Legacy: From Reconstruction to the NAACP Princeton U. Press 1975. 438 pp.
- Newman, Richard S. The Transformation of American Abolitionism: Fighting Slavery in the Early Republic. U. of North Carolina Pr., 2002. 256 pp.
- Osofsky, Gilbert. "Abolitionists, Irish Immigrants, and the Dilemmas of Romantic Nationalism" American Historical Review 1975 80(4): 889-912. Issn: 0002-8762
- Perry, Lewis and Michael Fellman, eds. Antislavery Reconsidered: New Perspectives on the Abolitionists. Louisiana State Univ Press, 1979. ISBN 0807108898.
- Peterson, Merrill D. John Brown: The Legend Revisited U. Press of Virginia, 2002. 196 pp.
- Pierson, Michael D. Free Hearts and Free Homes: Gender and American Antislavery Politics. U. of North Carolina Press, 2003. 250 pp.
- Beth A. Salerno. Sister Societies: Women's Antislavery Organizations in Antebellum America Northern Illinois University Press, 2005. ISBN =0-87580-338-5.
- Speicher, Anna M. The Religious World of Antislavery Women: Spirituality in the Lives of Five Abolitionist Lecturers. Syracuse Univ Press, 2000. ISBN 0815628501.
- Harrold, Stanley. The Rise of Aggressive Abolitionism: Addresses to the Slaves U. Press of Kentucky, 2004. 246 pp.
- Stauffer, John. The Black Hearts of Men: Radical Abolitionists and the Transformation of Race. Harvard U. Press, 2002. 367 pp.
- Vorenberg, Michael. Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Amendment. Cambridge U. Press, 2001. 305 pp.
- Zilversmit, Arthur. The First Emancipation: The Abolition of Slavery in the North. University of Chicago Press, 1967. ISBN 0226983323.
[编辑] 註釋
- ↑ S.M.Wise, Though the Heavens May Fall, Pimlico (2005)
- ↑ Newman, p. 18,21
- ↑ Dooley 11-15; McKivigan 27 (ritualism) , 30, 51, 191, Osofsky; ANB Leonidas Polk
- ↑ No Compromise with Slavery, 1854, by Wm. L. Garrison retrieved from http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbaapc:@field(DOCID+@lit(rbaapc11000div2)); also Mayer: All in the Fire, pp. 65-67, 475.
- ↑ Morison and Commager, Growth of the American Republic p.214-220
[编辑] 外部連結
- The Antislavery Literature Project major academic center for primary sources
- Elijah Parish Lovejoy: A Martyr on the Altar of American Liberty
- Brycchan Carey's pages listing British abolitionists
- Slavery in Massachusetts, Henry David Thoreau
- The National Archives (UK): The Abolition of the Slave Trade
- John Brown Museum
- American Abolitionism
