Serangga

Ti Wikipédia, énsiklopédi bébas

Artikel ieu keur dikeureuyeuh, ditarjamahkeun tina basa Inggris. Bantosanna diantos kanggo narjamahkeun.

? Serangga
Nyiruan (ordo Hymenoptera)
Klasifikasi ilmiah
Kingdom: Animalia Filum: Artropoda Subfilum: Héksapoda Kelas: Insékta Linnaeus, 1758
Kelas & Ordo
Baca taksonomi

Serangga atawa mangrupakeun sato invertebrata ti kelas Insékta, takson panglobana paling lega ambahanana (di darat) ti filum Artropoda. Serangga ngawengku panglobana rupa sato di Bumi, kira aya 925.000 spésiés nu geus digambarkeun—leuwih ti gabungan golongan sato lian.

Aya kira lima rébu spésiés papatong, dua rébu congcorang, 20.000 simeut, 170.000 kukupu jeung ngenget, 120.000 laleur, 82.000 kutu, 350.000 éngang, sarta 110.000 nyiruan jeung sireum. Hasil ngira-ngira mah, kaasup nu cak kacatet sacara ilmiah, jumlah spésiésna téh bisa nepi ka 30 juta. Ulikan ilmiah ngeunaan serangga disebut éntomologi.

Laleur

[édit] Hubungan jeung artropoda lianna

Congcorang

Golongan sato nu sarupa dedeganana jeung serangga, modél (Collembola), dihijikeun jeung serangga dina Subfilum Héksapoda. Tapi kadieunakeun ieu subfilum téh teu ngawengku Collembola, sabab sigana boga asal-usul nu béda. Jadi, dulur nu deukeut jeung serangga mah anggota Entognatha nu lianna: Protura jeung Diplura. Nu bener-bener serangga (nyaéta spésiés-spésiés nu kaasup kelas Insékta) dibédakeun ti artropoda lianna ku ayana ectognathous, sungut nu nembrak jeung sawelas buku/ruas abdominal. Sungutna ieu ogé nu nyababkeun golongan ieu disebut Ectognatha. Spésiés-spésiés serangga lolobana jangjangan, mun geus sawawa. Artropoda terestrial samodél lipan, titinggi, kalajengking, jeung lancah, sakapeung sok disaruakeun jeung serangga, alatan awakna sarupa sarta boga rangka luar (éksoskeleton).

[édit] Morfologi jeung kamekaran

Anatomi serangga
A- Hulu   B- Toraks (dada)   C- Abdomén (beuteung)
1. anténeu
2. ocelli (handap)
3. ocelli (luhur)
4. panon majemuk
5. uteuk (cerebral ganglia)
6. protoraks
7. arteri dorsal
8. solobong trahéa (trunk with spiracle)
9. mésotoraks
10. métathoraks
11. jangjang kahiji
12. jangjang kadua
13. peujit tengah (burih)
14. jantung
15. ovarium
16. peujit tungtung (peujit, réktum & bool)
17. bool
18. heunceut
19. urat saraf (abdominal ganglia)
20. Solobong Malpighian
21. bantal
22. kuku
23. tarsus
24. tibia
25. femur
26. trochanter
27. peujit hareup (crop, gizzard)
28. thoracic ganglion
29. coxa
30. kelenjar ciduh
31. subesophageal ganglion
32. sungut

Ukuran serangga téh rupa-rupa, ti nu ukur samiliméter nepi ka nu leuwih ti 18 cm. Awakna ruruasan nu dirojong ku éksoskeleton, cangkang nu teuas nu utamana diwangun ku kitin. Awakna dibagi kana tilu bagian: hulu, dada/toraks, jeung beuteung/abdomén. Dina huluna aya anténeu sénsor, sapasang panon majemuk, jeung sungut. Dina dadana aya genep suku (sapasang dina unggal ruasna) jeung jangjang (mun aya). Beuteungna, nu diwangun ku sawelas ruas, mibanda struktur pikeun ékskrési jeung baranahan.

Sistim sarafna dibagi kana uteuk jeung urat saraf véntral. Luyu jeung kapsul hulu nu diwangun ku genep ruas awak anterior, anatomi uteuk serangga ogé ngandung genep pasang ganglia. Tilu pasang nu kahiji ngagabung dina uteuk, sedengkeun tilu pasang nu séjénna ngagabung kana struktur nu disebut subesophageal ganglion. Susunan kieu ogé aya dina dada nepi ka abdomén, iwal yén dina abdomén mah pasangan gangliana téh ukur aya dina dalapan ruas nu di hareup. Loba di antara spésiés-spésiés serangga nu ngurangan jumlah ganglionna ku ngagabungkeun sababaraha ganglion abdominal atawa ngagabungkeun nu na abdomén jeung nu na dada. Misalna cucunguk, na abdoménna téh ukur aya genep ganglion. Ogé dina laleur, ganglion awakna téh digabungkeun jeung ganglion dada.

Serangga mibanda sistim cerna nu lengkep, dina harti boga solobong nu nyambung ti sungut nepi ka bool. Sistim éksrésina ngawengku tubula Malpighi pikeun miceun runtah nu ngandung nitrogén sarta 'peujit tukang' (hindgut) pikeun osmorégulasi. Dina tungtung peujit tukang, serangga bisa nyerep deui cai sarta ion-ion kalium jeung natrium. Ku kituna, serangga mah tara ngaluarkeun cai bareng jeung taina. Prosés nyerap ulang ieu jadi 'bekel' serangga sangkan bisa hirup di lingkungan nu panas tur garing.

Serangga mah lolobana boga dua pasang jangjang nu perenahna dina buku toraks/dada kadua jeung katilu. Mun tina jihat téori évolusi mah, kelompok sato ieu téh mangrupakeun hiji-hijina kelompok invertebrata nu jangjangan, sahingga kacatet salaku kelompok sato nu bisa salamet nepi ka kiwari. Serangga jangjangan jeung dulurna nu teu jangjangan ngahiji dina subkelas Pterygota. Cara hiber serangga can pati kateuleuman. Serangga nu leuwih maju, nyaéta nu kaasup Neoptera, sacara umum, jangjangna téh bosa ditilepkeun dina tonggongna, sahingga teu ngaganggu gerakna nalika teu hiber. Dina serangga kitu, jangjangna ieu diatur ku otot hiber-teu langsung ku jalan neken pinding toraks. Otot ieu bisa kontraksi tanpa impuls saraf, sahingga jangjangna bisa gerak gancang pisan.

Rorongkong luar serangga nu disebut kutikula/kutikel diwangun ku dua lapisan: (1) épikutikel nu mangrupa lapisan luar nu ipis tur ngandung lilin sahingga teu tembus cai, teu ngandung kitin jeung (2) lapisan handapeunana nu disebut prokutikel nu ngandung kitin sarta leuwih kandel batan lapisan luar. Lapisan jero ieu bisa dibagi deui kana dua lapisan: éksokutikel jeung éndokutikel. Éndokutikel ieu weweg tapi ngenyod kawas nu diwangun ku sababaraha lapis, ngandung serat kitin jeung protéin nu disusun silih timpah silang.

Serangga migunakeun réspirasi trahéal pikeun ngakut oksigén ka sakujur awakna. Lawang na awakna disebut spirakel nu nyambung ke sistim trahéal tubular. Udara nepi ka jaringan jero ngaliwatan sistim ieu. Moal leuwih ti sapasang spirakel per ruasna, sarta moal leuwih ti dua pasang spirakel dina toraksna (mésotoraks jeung métatoraks), atawa leuwih ti dalapan pasang dina abdoménna (dalapan ruas nu mimiti). Serangga nu leuwih luhur jumlah spirakelna téh leuwih saeutik. ----

Artikel ieu keur dikeureuyeuh, ditarjamahkeun tina basa séjén.

There is a limit to the pressure that the walls of the tracheal tubes can withstand without collapsing, even if they are stiffened with bands of chitin, which is one of the reasons why insects are relatively small. Spirakel téh dilengkepan ku kelép/katup nu diatur ku otot, sahingga bisa ditutup nalika perlu (misalna keur na cai atawa ngurangan kalembaban). Pikeun ngahalangan kebul jeung partikel lianna, spirakel téh dilengkepan ku bulu nu bisa nyaring éta gangguan.

Aya sababaraha spésiés serangga, kayaning anggota Chironomidae, nu ngandung pigmén résporatori kawas hémoglobin dina hambalan bilatungna. Dina serangga sarupa kitu mah trahéana téh leutik sabab awakna bisa nyerep oksigén langsung tina cai, sahingga bisa hirup dina jero leutak nu kandungan oksigénna saeutik pisan. Tilu pasang spirakel na kutu cai dibungkus ku mémbran nu sénsitip tekenan, sarupa jeung cara gawé jero ceuli manusa. ----

Artikel ieu keur dikeureuyeuh, ditarjamahkeun tina basa séjén.

The last abdominal spiracle and associated trachea of caterpillars in the Lepidoptera have also been modified; the trachea of the eighth segment are modified into what can be called a trachea lung, as it has adapted to hemocyte gas exchange. Short tracheoles from this trachea ends in knots within the tracheole cell basement membrane. Since they do not supply any cellular tissue, it seems most likely that they are supplying the hemocytes with oxygen. The Madagascar hissing cockroach expels air from certain spiracles to create a loud hissing sound.

A diffuse tissue of cells found through out the hemocoel of insects, most of all in the abdomen, is called the fat body. Energy storage and metabolic processes are among its main functions. It is also the closest insects comes to a liver.

The circulatory system of insects, like that of other arthropods, is open: The heart pumps the hemolymph through arteries to open spaces surrounding the internal organs; when the heart relaxes, the hemolymph seeps back into the heart.

Like some other invertebrates, insects cannot synthesise cholesterol and must receive it from the diet. With a very few exceptions, they also depends on long-chain fatty acids in their diet, especially 18-carbon chains. A lack of these fatty acids will affect ther development in a negative way, causing such things as longer time to mature and deformed adults.

We can also find polyembryony in some insects. A single fertilized egg from polyembryonic parastic wasps can actually divide into literally thousands of separate embryos.

Most insects hatch from eggs, others are ovoviviparous or viviparous, and all undergo a series of moults as they develop and grow in size. This manner of growth is necessitated by the exoskeleton. Moulting is a process by which the individual escapes the confines of the exoskeleton in order to increase in size, then grows a new outer covering. In most types of insects, the young, called nymphs, are basically similar in form to the adults (an example is the grasshopper), though wings are not developed until the adult stage. This is called incomplete metamorphosis. Complete metamorphosis distinguishes the Endopterygota, which includes many of the most successful insect groups. In these species, an egg hatches to produce a larva, which is generally worm-like in form, and can be divided into five different forms; eruciform (caterpillar-like), scarabaeiform (grublike), campodeiform (elongated, flattened, and active), elateriform (wireworm-like) and vermiform (maggot-like). The larva grows and eventually becomes a pupa, a stage sealed within a cocoon or chrysalis in some species. There are three types of pupae; obtect, exarate and coarctate. In the pupal stage, the insect undergoes considerable change in form to emerge as an adult, or imago. Butterflies are an example of an insect that undergoes complete metamorphosis. Some insects have even evolved hypermetamorphosis. Other development traits are haplodiploidy, polymorphism, paedomorphosis (metathetely and prothetely), sexual dimorphism, parthenogenesis and more rarely hermaphroditism.

[édit] Paripolah

Laleur kairut ku cahya

Serangga mah loba nu mibanda organ pangrasa. Dina sababaraha kasus mah, malah, leuwih onjoy batan manusa. Pikeun conto, nyiruan bisa nempo spéktrum ultrabungur, sedengkeun ngenget jalu bisa 'ngambeu' féromon bikangna nu anggangna sababaraha kilo.

Serangga ogé loba nu bisa ngitung, di antarana wasp (aya nu uninga Sundana?), nu nempatkeun endog-endogna masing-masing dina hiji sél katut sababaraha hileud pikeun parabna mun geus megar. Aya nu nyadiakeun lima, sawelas, atawa dua puluh opat hileud per sél, gumantung ka spésiés jeung jenis kelaminna (nu jalu awakna leuwih leutik batan nu bikang, jadi hileud nu disadiakeun ogé leuwih saeutik).

Serangga sosial, kayaning sireum jeung nyiruan, mangrupakeun sato spésiés eusosial nu paling dipikawanoh ku manusa. Serangga-serangga éta nyayang hirup dina koloni nu diatur kalawan ketat, sahingga kadang dianggap superorganisme.

[édit] Peran di lingkungan jeung kahirupan manusa

Aedes aegypti, parasit véktor demam berdarah jeung panyakit konéng.

Serangga loba nu dianggap hama ku manusa, utamana salaku parasit (reungit, kutu, tumbila), népakeun panyakit (reungit, laleur), ngaruksak wangunan (rinyuh), atawa ngaruksak pepelakan (bejog atawa simeut badag). Para éntomologis dina hal ieu sok boga peran, boh maké inséktisida atawa métode biokontrol.

Najan serangga téh lolobana mah dianggap hama, sabenerna mah loba ogé serangga nu penting ajénna pikeun lingkungan jeung manusa. Di antarana baé serangga nu ngabantu penyerbukan tutuwuhan kembangan (misalna wasp, nyiruan, kukupu, sireum). Hubungan ieu sipatna mutualusme, silih untungkeun: serangga nyeuseup sari kembang, sedengkeun tutuwuhanana kabantu dina penyerbukan kembangna. Masalah lingkungan jaman kiwari téh justru di dieu pisan, yén serangga nu bisa ngabantu penyerbukan populasina beuki ngurangan.

Artikel ieu keur dikeureuyeuh, ditarjamahkeun tina basa séjén.

Insects also produce useful substances such as honey, wax, lacquer and silk. Honeybees, (pictured above) have been cultured by humans for thousands of years for honey, although contracting for crop pollination is becoming more significant for beekeepers. The silkworm has greatly affected human history, as silk-driven trade established relationships between China and the rest of the world. Fly larvae (maggots) were formerly used to treat wounds to prevent or stop gangrene, as they would only consume dead flesh. This treatment is finding modern usage in some hospitals. Insect larvae of various kinds are also commonly used as fishing bait.

In some parts of the world, insects are used for human food ("Entomophagy"), while being a taboo in other places. There are proponents of developing this use to provide a major source of protein in human nutrition. Since it is impossible to entirely eliminate pest insects from the human food chain, insects already are present in many foods, especially grains. Most people do not realize that food laws in many countries do not prohibit insect parts in food, but rather limit the quantity. According to cultural materialist anthropologist Marvin Harris, the eating of insects is taboo in cultures that have protein sources that require less work, like farm birds or cattle.

Many insects, especially beetles, are scavengers, feeding on dead animals and fallen trees, recycling the biological materials into forms found useful by other organisms. The ancient Egyptian religion adored beetles and represented them as scarabeums.

Although mostly unnoticed by most humans, the most useful of all insects are insectivores, those that feed on other insects. Many insects, such as grasshoppers, can potentially reproduce so quickly that they could literally bury the earth in a single season. However, there are hundreds of other insect species that feed on grasshopper eggs, and some that feed on grasshopper adults. This role in ecology is usually assumed to be primarily one of birds, but insects, though less glamorous, are much more significant. For any pest insect one can name, there is a species of wasp that is either a parasitoid or predator upon that pest, and plays a significant role in controlling it.

Human attempts to control pests by insecticides can backfire, because important but unrecognized insects already helping to control pest populations are also killed by the poison, leading eventually to population explosions of the pest species.

[édit] Taksonomi

Numutkeun téorina, évolusi téh ngahasilkeun rupa-rupa serangga. Gambar ieu nunjukkeun sababaraha kamungkinan bentuk anténeu serangga.

Artikel ieu keur dikeureuyeuh, ditarjamahkeun tina basa séjén.

Sakumaha béréndélan di luhur, serangga dibagi kana dua subkelas: Apterygota jeung Pterygota (serangga hiber), tapi ka hareup mah ieu téh bisa jadi robah. Apterygota diwangun ku dua ordo: Archaeognatha (Bristletails) jeung Thysanura (Silverfish). In the suggested classification, the Archaeognatha makes up the Monocondylia while Thysanura and Pterygota are grouped together as Dicondylia. It is even possible that the Thysanura itself are not monophyletic, making the family Lepidotrichidae a sister group to the Dicondylia (Pterygota + the rest of the Thysanura). Also within the infraclass Neoptera we will probably see some re-organization in not too long. Today Neoptera is divided into the superorders Exopterygota and Endopterygota. But even if the Endopterygota are monophyletic, the Exopterygota seems to be paraphyletic, and can be separated into smaller groups; Paraneoptera, Dictyoptera, Orthopteroidea and to other groups (Grylloblattodea + Mantophasmatodea and Plecoptera + Zoraptera + Dermaptera). Phasmatodea and Embioptera has been suggested to form Eukinolabia, while Strepsiptera and Diptera are sometimes grouped together in Halteria. Paraneoptera has turned out to be more closeley related to Endopterygota than to the rest of the Exopterygota. It is not still clear how closley related the remaining Exopterygote groups are and if they belongs together in a larger unit. Only more research will give the answear.

[édit] Évolusi

Artikel utama: évolusi serangga

Nepi ka kiwari, hubungan antara serangga jeung bangsa sato séjén téh masih can écés. Najan sacara tradisional disakelompokkeun jeung titinggi sarta lipan, bukti nu némbongan mah malah nunjukkeun yén serangga mah leuwih deukeut hubungan évolusionérna jeung crustacean. Numutkeun téori Pancrustacea, serangga jeung Remipedia sarta Malacostraca téh ngabentuk clade alami.

Catetan fosil nunjukkeun yén serangga dumadakan mucunghul munggaran dina awal periode Carboniferous Ahir, Yuga Bashkirian Awal, kira 350 juta taun ka tukang. Dina mangsa éta, tétéla spésiés serangga téh geus rupa-rupa. Catetan fosil gé nunjukkeun yén harita téh geus aya leuwih ti satengah losin ordo. Ku kituna, serangga munggaran téh meureun mucunghulna dina periode Carboniferous nu leuwih awal, atawa dina periode Devonian saméméhna.

[édit] Rujukan

• Insect, Wikipédia édisi basa Inggris (8 Maret 2006)
• Triplehorn, Charles A. & Norman F. Johnson (2005). Borror and DeLong's Introduction to the Study of Insects, éd. ka-7, Thomas Brooks/Cole. ISBN 0030968356. — pustaka buhun di Amérika Kalér
• Grimaldi, David and Michael S. Engel (2005-05-16). Evolution of the Insects, Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521821495. — dadaran mutahir ngeunaan sajarah évolusionér serangga

[édit] Baca ogé

• Serangga prasajarah
• 
  Pilem laleur salila 4:05 menit - 8MB xvid dina wadah ogg nunjukkeun laleur nu keur meresihan hulu jeung jangjangna maké suku-sukuna. Pilemna dilaunan satengah kali sangkan nu lalajo kagesitan ieu sato.

[édit] Galeri

Diaprepes abbreviatus	Ctenomorpha chronus	Gerris najas	Aelia acuminata
Calopteryx virgo	Forficula auricularia	Patanga japonica	Episyrphus balteatus
Osmia rufa	Wasp	Iphiclides podalirius	Dryocampa rubicunda

[édit] Tumbu kaluar

Wikispecies mibanda émbaran ngeunaan

Insecta

Wikimedia Commons mibanda média séjénna nu patali jeung artikel ieu dina kaca

Category:Insecta

• North American Insects Pabukon opat rébuan poto serangga katut rujukanana. Lisénsi Creative Commons
• Bug Bytes Pabukon digital rujukan sora-sora serangga.
• INSECTS .org Promosi ngeunaan serangga.
• Insects as Food karya Gene DeFoliart. Émbaran ngeunaan serangga salaku bahan pangan.
• Kendall Bioresearch Bug Index, Featured Bugs, Classification, ID, Fossils, Body-parts, Micro Views, Life Cycles, Pesticide Safety.
• Meganeura Ramatloka ngeunaan évolusi serangga jeung catetan fosilna.
• Tree of Life Project – Insecta
• UF Book of Insect Records, dokuméntasi "serangga jawara" dina rupa-rupa kategori
• BugGuide Poto, émbaran kahirupan, jeung idéntifikasi artropoda, utamana serangga, di Amérika Kalér.