西班牙殖民地
维基百科，自由的百科全书
西班牙殖民地為西班牙王國所建立，世界上第一個全球性的殖民地帝國，而這個帝國也是世界歷史上其中一個大型的殖民帝國。在16世紀中，西班牙和葡萄牙兩國相互競爭下逐漸形成了大規模的全球探險及殖民擴張。而新航路的發現更使得西班牙開通了美洲和東亞之間的太平洋貿易航線，促成西班牙建立殖民地的主張。早期的西班牙征服者曾推翻美洲的阿茲特克及印加帝國，並聲稱其在南美洲的主權。此時，西班牙帝國已經開始以其經驗充足的海軍和訓練有素的步兵支配著大片的海洋和歐洲戰場，尤其是它的「步兵方陣」更為軍事歷史寫下光輝的一頁。因此，西班牙在16至17世紀間經歷了輝煌的黃金年代。
從殖民地中掠奪回來的黃金和白銀都使得哈布斯堡皇室統治下的西班牙有能力對歐、非兩地進行戰爭。在1580年葡萄牙殖民地崛起，至19世紀初中西班牙失去美洲大部份的殖民地這段時間，西班牙一直維持著一個龐大的殖民帝國，儘管它在17世紀40年代經歷了經濟和軍事上的低潮。但亦因為這些新的衝擊，西班牙本國內亦開始發展出一套趨向現代體制的新思想，當中包含了主權、國際法律、戰爭及經濟等範疇，以及帝國主義──日後歐洲列強所效法的政治思想，為現代政治打下堅實的基礎。
由領土、貿易和宗教衝突所引起的鬥爭，都使得西班牙國力在17世紀中葉開始下滑，如它在地中海一直與東方穆斯林建立的奧斯曼帝國進行戰爭；而毗鄰逐漸強大的法國也開始危及西班牙的霸主地位；而在大西洋中，西班牙不僅要面對故有的對手葡萄牙，而且亦開始受到新興海上國家──英國和荷蘭的競爭。而英法荷三國更支持本國的海盜行為，亦令西班牙受到很大困擾；此外，西班牙政府出現的內部問題如官員貪污等事件也令西班牙的經濟受挫；連年的征戰和其他龐大開支更令其財政雪上加霜，而以上種種因素皆令西班牙帝國的版圖開始縮小。在1713年西班牙與歐洲各國簽署的烏得勒支和約使得它失去了義大利和尼德蘭的屬地，但仍然保留了其殖民帝國的其他疆土。可是，西班牙的霸主時代已經一去不返，並由英國等新興國家接掌了它的地位。
即使受到如此屈辱的挫敗，但西班牙一直維持其殖民帝國至19世紀。19世紀初，法國的拿破崙開始征戰歐洲大陸，使得歐洲各國也受牽連，西班牙也不例外。當法國對西葡等國發動的半島戰爭打響後，西班牙的南美殖民地委內瑞拉和巴拉圭卻宣佈獨立。此舉令西班牙在南美的殖民地紛紛燃起了獨立革命的火種，為西班牙殖民帝國敲響了喪鐘。當拉丁美洲獨立革命完結以後，西班牙只能保有加勒比海的古巴、波多黎各；亞洲的菲律賓和大洋洲的關島、密克羅尼西亞、帛琉及北馬利亞納等地，但西班牙其後卻在1898年的美西戰爭中相繼失去這些地方，此時西班牙帝國的版圖只剩下非洲的屬土。直至20世紀中葉，非殖民地化的聲音在非洲殖民地內不斷擴大，使得西班牙分別在1956、1968和1975年失去了西屬摩洛哥、西屬幾內亞和西屬撒哈拉，至今只剩下梅利利亚、直布罗陀等地。
目录 |
[编辑] 帝國的建立(1402-1521年)
西班牙最初建立其橫跨整個世界的帝國前，曾經面對著3個其他國家的競爭──阿拉贡、勃艮地和葡萄牙帝國。同時，卡斯蒂利亚國王亦因為摩尔人向其進貢黃金而承認摩爾人在格拉纳达建立的國家，使得西班牙處於包圍。此外，當卡斯蒂利亞人知道這些黃金是來自非洲的尼日尔後，便開始積極干預北非的事務，以作為向中非進發的跳板。最後，卡斯蒂利亞國王亨利三世在1402年征服了加那利群岛。
而阿拉貢和卡斯蒂利亞兩國的聯婚(斐迪南二世與伊莎貝拉一世)使得兩國變成一個共主邦聯，兩地各有其直屬的總督，但皆奉同一個君主。自此，西班牙開始趨向統一的，並開始對外擴張，向新大陸等地進發，更分別在1497和1509年佔據了菲律賓和非洲的梅利利亚和奧蘭等地。
這次聯姻大力支持了阿拉貢的那不勒斯王室向法國的查理八世開戰，因此，義大利戰爭在1494年爆發。斐迪南二世作為阿拉貢國王，也因而牽涉到法國和威尼斯之間，對義大利統治的鬥爭中。在這場戰爭中，法國節節敗退，最後更遭到敗北的惡果。這使得西班牙得以在亚平宁半岛擴張它的土地。
自戰爭的勝利，並對意大利實行了統治權後，西班牙也同時在新大陸進行西班牙殖民帝國的擴建。而卡斯蒂利亞更請來了欲取道西航到達日本的熱那亞的航海家哥倫布，來抗衡葡萄牙的海外擴張。但是，哥倫布卻意外的發現了美洲新大陸－－而這片土地日後更成為了西班牙的殖民地。1494年，西葡兩國在教宗的主持下簽訂了托尔德西里亚斯条约，勘分了歐洲以西的世界，這無疑給予西班牙一個能夠在美洲建立廣大殖民地的權利。自此，西班牙便開始在把目光投向新大陸的發展。
另一方面，自伊莎貝拉女王死後，其夫斐迪南二世獨掌政權，並開始推動一些積極的對外政策。他首次把西班牙軍隊投入意大利战争中，並取得了空前成功，聲名因而大噪。1516年，法國與之簽訂停戰協定，西班牙獲得了上納瓦拉的大片土地，為其歐洲擴張踏出第一步，西班牙帝國開始趨向強大。與此同時，西班牙開始對美洲進行侵略。自1493年西班牙取得了加勒比海上的伊斯帕尼奧拉島，並將之建立為歐洲第一個美洲殖民地後，他們的野心便日益擴大。在16世紀初，他們先後征服了波多黎各、古巴和巴拿馬等地，為其「日不落帝國」打下了基礎。1513年，西班牙的征服者跨過巴拿馬峽，到達了美洲的太平洋沿岸。因此，他們便宣稱整個太平洋及其島嶼也歸屬西班牙王室之下。
美洲殖民地的建立，為西班牙帶來了鉅大的財富，而它帶來的原料及貴金屬更刺激了西班牙城市的工商業發展。而西班牙更在此時開始大肆發展教育、經濟、政治等項目，為西班牙黃金時代的來臨作出不少貢獻。
[编辑] 西班牙的黃金年代：日不落帝國 (1521-1643年)
西班牙的16及17世紀是其最輝煌的年代，因此西班牙人稱之為「黃金年代」(西班牙語：Siglo de Oro)。在16世紀間，西班牙就從新西班牙得到了等同約1萬5千億美金(1990年的價值)的黃金及白銀，其殖民地之大，無怪有人稱之為「日不落帝國」。而這個龐大帝國的中心，不是位處內陸的馬德里，而是在沿岸的塞維利亞。但當這個如日中天的帝國落入哈布斯堡王朝的手中之後，就被其統治者把它的財富統統揮霍一空。而哈布斯堡王朝的統治者更因為對外的連年征戰造成負債累累，最後更落得破產的下場。因此它制定了一連串政策以扭轉劣勢。
如下是哈布斯堡王朝制定的政策：
- 加速掠取美洲的產品(金、銀、蔗糖)及亞洲的產物(瓷器、香料、絲綢)。
- 暗中削弱法國的影響力，並蠶食其在東部的邊界。
- 維持哈布斯堡王朝在德國的霸權，並支持天主教，以對抗宗教改革。
- 抵抗穆斯林對歐洲的威脅，尤其針對奧斯曼帝國。
而伊莎貝拉和斐迪南的外孫查理因著他特殊的身份，繼承了卡斯蒂利亞、阿拉貢、神聖羅馬帝國、低地國家及弗朗什孔泰的廣大領地，而這些領地更構成一個空前龐大的帝國。雖然查理並沒有透過征服來建立其橫跨歐美的帝國，但他卻因為擊敗反對勢力而成為歐洲最有影響力的人。此外，他更為維護天主教立下不少苦功，包括驅逐改革家馬丁·路德。但是，無論他如何的虔誠，也不能阻止他的部隊對羅馬教廷的劫掠。
哥倫布以後，新大陸的殖民活動就由西班牙的殖民者繼續下去。他們先後擊敗了位於中美洲的印加帝國及阿茲特克，並作為了美洲大陸的拓荒者。為了開發及創建這片新的大陸，西班牙人便請來大量居民落地生根，成為世界上第一個殖民活動。可是，這片土地的勞動力短缺，因此他們從非洲抓來黑人作為奴隸－－更開拓了歐洲殖民者爭相參與的黑奴貿易。當中最著名的西班牙殖民者，可數荷南·科爾蒂斯。他曾於1519至21年間率領20萬人進攻墨西哥的阿茲特克帝國，其後更將之納為西班牙殖民帝國的版圖之內。此外，探險家如佛朗西斯科·皮薩羅更開拓了西班牙征服南美洲的序幕。為人津津樂道的是，他只率領一百六十八人便擊敗了南美的印加帝國，並創立了秘魯殖民地，使之與墨西哥連成一線，建立起「新西班牙」的廣大版圖。西班牙人經過兩次征服以後，便變本加厲，開始擴大他們在中南美洲的版圖，成為西班牙殖民帝國的鼎盛時代。
1521年，法國國王弗朗索瓦一世開始向西班牙挑釁，並入侵其在義大利的領地，引發了比克卡會戰及帕維亞會戰。但是，他這樣做卻徒勞無功，最後更放棄了米蘭等地。
[编辑] 帕維亞會戰及奧格斯堡和約
1525年，查理五世在帕維亞會戰中擊敗法國，並俘虜弗朗索瓦一世。這使得很多義大利及德國人感到，他將會繼續擴張勢力。當時，教宗克萊孟七世倒戈支持法國及義大利一些重要城邦，參與針對哈布斯堡帝國的科尼亞克同盟戰爭 (War of the League of Cognac)，但是失敗。後來在1527年，查理漸漸厭倦教宗干預他認為與宗教毫無關係的事務，並攻陷羅馬，使教宗蒙羞。結果，克勉七世與繼任的教宗與世俗勢力交往時，都顯得加倍謹慎。1529年，教宗與查理簽署巴塞羅那和約，建立更和諧關係。西班牙正式成為天主教的保護者，而查理被加冕為意大利國王 (倫巴第)。西班牙需要出兵，推翻佛羅倫薩共和國。1533年，克勉七世拒絕讓亨利八世離婚，主要原因是他不希望觸怒查理五世，令羅馬再度被洗劫。
1522年，葡萄牙人斐迪南·麥哲倫主導一支西班牙船隊進行環球航行，途中在菲律賓去世。胡安·塞瓦斯蒂安·埃爾卡諾 (Juan Sebastián Elcano) 將會承繼領導工作，使航行成功。
1528年，著名海軍上將安德烈亞·多里亞 (Andrea Doria) 與查理五世結盟，打敗法國軍隊，使熱那亞重新獨立，也讓查理有改善財政的機會。那一年，熱那亞的銀行首次借貸給查理 (Braudel 1984)。
西班牙更積極在新世界建立殖民地，在1530年代建立新格拉納達 (今哥倫比亞)，在1536年建立布宜諾斯艾利斯。
西班牙曾訂立法例，保護其美洲殖民地的原住民，首條法例在1542年建立。法例的法律意義，成為現代國際法的基礎。歐洲殖民者藉著殖民地的遙遠，感到權力受制時，便發動叛亂，使部分新法律被廢除。後來，約束力較弱的法律訂立，用以保護原住民，但紀錄顯示這些法律效力不足。監護徵賦制 (Encomienda)重新建立，印地安人不受保護，反而受到剝削。
1543年，法國國王弗朗索瓦一世宣布首次與奧斯曼帝國蘇丹蘇萊曼大帝結盟，並與奧斯曼軍隊佔領西班牙控制的城市尼斯。亨利八世雖然不滿查理五世阻止他離婚，但更不滿法國，所以跟查理五世一起侵略法國。雖然西班牙在薩伏伊的切雷索萊戰役遭受重大挫敗，但法國仍然難以威脅西班牙控制的米蘭，又在北方敗於亨利八世，故此被迫接受不利的條件。查理五世的弟弟斐迪南領到奧地利，繼續在東方與奧斯曼軍隊交戰。查理則處理早前未解決的國內問題，由路德派德意志諸侯及其他新教邦國組成的施馬爾卡爾登同盟。
這個同盟已經跟法國結盟，並阻止德意志破壞它。可是，法王弗朗索瓦在1454年戰敗，使其與新教徒的同盟瓦解，令查理有可乘之機。首先，在1545年，特倫托大公會議舉行，查理嘗試進行和談。然而，新教領導層在會上感到被天主教徒出賣，於是參與由薩克森選帝侯莫里茨發動的戰爭。於是，查理帶領來自荷蘭和西班牙的軍隊入侵德意志，希望能恢復帝國統治。1547年，查理的軍隊在重要的米爾貝格戰役擊敗新教徒，令施馬爾卡爾登同盟崩潰。1555年，查理與新教邦國簽署奧格斯堡和約，並根據他的「統治者的宗教乃人民的宗教」(拉丁語：-{cuius regio, eius religio}-)原則，重建德意志地區之穩定，但並不受西班牙和意大利宗教人士的歡迎。查理對德意志的政策，令西班牙成為神聖羅馬帝國內天主教和哈布斯堡王朝的保護者。這樣的先例，再七十年後令西班牙參與戰爭，並結束其在歐洲的領導地位。
查理決定多在海岸與奧斯曼軍隊作戰，結果牽制了奧斯曼軍隊企圖在地中海東部進侵威尼斯共和國領土之攻勢。當奧斯曼軍隊進犯西班牙東岸，查理才親自率兵進攻非洲大陸(1545年)。
[编辑] 聖康坦到勒班陀戰役 (1556–1571年)
查理五世唯一合法婚姻所生的兒子腓力二世 (1556-98年在位) 與叔父斐迪南一世瓜分了哈布斯堡王朝的領地。腓力視西班牙為他帝國的基礎，但西班牙人口僅有法國的三分之一，難以為帝國提供足夠的兵力。後來，腓力與瑪麗·都鐸，使西班牙與英格蘭結盟。
但是，西班牙仍然未得和平。1547年，深具野心的法王亨利二世登位，不久就再與西班牙發生衝突。腓力二世繼位後，繼續進行西班牙與法國的戰爭，先後在皮卡第的聖康坦戰役和格拉沃利訥戰役擊敗法軍。1559年，兩國簽署卡托-康布雷齊和約，永久確認西班牙在意大利的主權。和約簽署後慶祝典禮舉行，亨利參加馬上槍術比賽時被斷矛插中，數天後去世。在往後的三十年，法國陷入長期內戰與動盪 (請參看法國宗教戰爭)，故此不能在歐洲強國競賽中與西班牙和哈布斯堡王朝競爭。於是，由1559至1643年，沒有法國威脅的西班牙國力達到巔峰，版圖擴張至最大。
1557年，腓力二世統治的西班牙面對破產，於是給熱那亞銀行財團發展的機會。它們使德意志銀行集團陷入混亂，並取代富格爾家族 (The Fuggers)成為西班牙的金融巨頭。哈布斯堡王朝制度累贅，熱那亞銀行為之提供流動借款和可靠的收入。王朝則協助銀行，把從塞維利亞來自美洲的銀迅速運到熱那亞，以提供更多投資資本。
1565年，佩德羅·梅嫩德斯·德阿維萊斯 (Pedro Menendez de Aviles)創立聖奧古斯丁，並建立殖民地佛羅里達。後來，法國海軍軍官讓·里博 (Jean Ribault)與150名同胞企圖在西班牙佛羅里達建立非法殖民地，不久後被德阿維萊斯擊敗。聖奧古斯丁很快就成為重要的戰略地點，讓滿載金銀的西班牙船隻從新世界的殖民地航行到西班牙。
同年的4月27日，米格爾·洛佩斯·德萊加斯皮 (Miguel López de Legaspi)在菲律賓創立首個永久的西班牙殖民地，馬尼拉大帆船正式開始服務。這些大帆船把貨物經太平洋從亞洲運載到墨西哥海岸的阿卡普爾科；然後，貨物又在墨西哥運上西班牙珍寶船隊，最後運返西班牙。1572年，西班牙為了促進此貿易活動，建立了馬尼拉。
法國宗教戰爭初期，西班牙擊敗法國，腓力二世野心壯大。1565年，奧斯曼軍隊企圖登陸戰略地帶、有聖約翰騎士團守衛的馬爾他，被西班牙擊退。蘇萊曼大帝在翌年去世，其較為平庸的兒子 塞利姆二世繼位，令腓力更有信心，決定主動進攻。1571年，查理五世的私生子奧地利的唐胡安領導西班牙、威尼斯共和國和歐洲志願者的艦隊，在勒班陀戰役擊潰奧斯曼艦隊。此乃海軍歷史一場重要戰役，因為奧斯曼帝國失去了在地中海的海上霸權。西班牙的勝利，加上腓力二世背負著反宗教改革的任務，使西班牙的國威和強權達至頂峰。
[编辑] 王國的困擾 (1571–1598年)
西班牙喜慶的時光短暫。1566年，加爾文主義者在尼德蘭發動騷亂，促使費爾南多·阿爾瓦雷斯·德托萊多領軍到該地維持治安。1568年，奧蘭耶的威廉嘗試把阿爾瓦公爵逐出尼德蘭，但是失敗。一般認為，這些衝突是八十年戰爭爆發的序幕，最終令尼德蘭聯合省獲得獨立。西班牙依靠尼德蘭得到大量財富，尤其來自重要港口安特衛普。於是，西班牙政府致力維持治安和對尼德蘭諸省的控制。1572年，一群稱為「海上乞丐」(-{Watergeuzen}-) 的尼德蘭私掠者佔領數個尼德蘭沿海市鎮，並反對西班牙統治，支持奧蘭耶的威廉。
戰爭使西班牙陷入困境，甚至可謂泥足深陷。1574年，萊頓圍城戰中，尼德蘭人摧毀堤壩，導致廣泛水浸，使路易斯·德蘇尼加-雷克森斯 (-{Luis de Zúñiga y Requesens}-) 領導的西班牙軍隊撤退。1576年，腓力二世面臨嚴重財政問題。他麾下八萬人軍隊正在佔領尼德蘭，需要如同勒班陀戰役中艦隊的軍費。而且，公海海盜問題日趨嚴重，使美洲殖民地帶來的收入減少。故此，他被迫宣布破產。不久後，尼德蘭的西班牙軍隊叛變，奪取安特衛普並到原本和平的南尼德蘭搶掠，使當地部分城市也加入叛亂。西班牙選擇談判，於1579年成立阿特雷赫特聯盟 (Union of Atrecht；又成為阿拉斯聯盟)，使大部份南部省份再度和平。
上述協議規定所有西班牙軍隊離開尼德蘭。1580年，阿維茲王室最後成員、葡萄牙國王恩里克一世去世，讓腓力二世有鞏固其權利的機會。腓力宣稱擁有葡萄牙王位的繼承權，並在6月下令阿爾瓦公爵帶兵到里斯本，確保他能獲得王位。7月，安托尼奧一世在葡萄牙登位，但在一個月後被阿爾瓦公爵擊敗。最後，腓力二世開始統治葡萄牙，西班牙哈布斯堡王朝以共主邦聯的關係，統治葡萄牙六十年。兩國合併，讓腓力同時統治幾乎整個已發現的新世界，以及在非洲和亞洲的龐大貿易帝國。腓力二世為了令新建立的葡萄牙王國穩定，把首都搬遷到大西洋海港里斯本。1582年，他又重新遷都到馬德里。至此，西班牙的統治模式確立，縱使一些評論家對此有意見。一評論人指：「海洋力量對西班牙國王最重要，尤甚於任何統治者。唯有海上力量，能令一個社區向如此遠的地方擴展。」(-{"Sea power is more important to the ruler of Spain than any other prince" wrote a commentator, "for it is only by sea power that a single community can be created out of so many so far apart."}-) 1638年，研究戰略的評論人則認為：「西班牙軍隊最適宜擁有的力量，正在海上，但是這國家問題太著名了，即使我認為是時候評論它，我都不應該這樣做。」 (-{"The might most suited to the arms of Spain is that which is placed on the seas, but this matter of state is so well known that I should not discuss it, even if I thought it opportune to do so."}-) (Braudel 1984引用)
當時，西班牙需要軍隊負責佔領葡萄牙，以穩定對其之統治。而在1576年破產的西班牙，就仍然在恢復元氣。1584年，奧蘭耶的威廉被一名神智不清的天主教徒刺殺。這位受尼德蘭人歡迎的抗爭領導人之死，似乎能令戰爭結束，但事實恰恰相反。1586年，伊麗莎白一世出兵支持尼德蘭和法國的新教徒，其部下弗朗西斯·德雷克 (Francis Drake)在加勒比海和太平洋攻擊西班牙商船，並特地進攻港口加的斯。1588年，為了停止伊麗莎白一世的干預，腓力派遣無敵艦隊以攻擊英軍。當時天氣良好，英格蘭派遣較小型和敏捷的戰艦，而且得到在尼德蘭的間諜幫助，得以做好做戰準備。結果，英軍擊敗了為數更多、防備更佳的西班牙戰艦。雖然西班牙遭受重大挫敗，但隨後的德雷克-諾里斯遠征 (1589年)是英西戰爭 (1585-1604年)的轉捩點。西班牙的艦隊依然是歐洲最強，直到1639年的唐斯戰役中，尼德蘭海軍擊敗逐漸衰弱的西班牙。
法王亨利二世去世後，西班牙參與法國的宗教戰爭。1589年，瓦盧瓦王朝最後的國王亨利三世在巴黎城外去世。其繼位者、首位波旁王朝的法國國王納瓦拉的亨利四世是能力出眾的領導者。他在阿爾克戰役 (1589年)和伊夫里戰役 (1590年)擊敗法國天主教聯盟，取得重要勝利。腓力二世堅決要阻止亨利成為法國國王，於是分派軍隊到尼德蘭，並在1590年入侵法國。
[编辑] 「神就是西班牙」 (1596–1626年)
面對著與英法荷三國戰爭的龐大開支，西班牙也開始走向破產的邊緣。而且，英荷兩國在大西洋佈下的海盜船，令西班牙往來新大陸及本土的運金船受到截擊，從而使得西班牙失去經濟上的支援，因而在1596年宣佈破產。為了力挽狂瀾，西班牙致力於與各國締結和約，以化解衝突。首先，西班牙在1598年與法國簽訂韋爾萬條約，承認亨利四世為法國國王，並恢復行使在1559年簽訂的卡托-康布雷西條約中的條文。而英國因為受到多次的戰敗，再加上西班牙在愛爾蘭的游擊戰使其困擾不已，因此英國便於1604年與西班牙簽訂倫敦條約，確立由斯圖亞特王室的詹姆士一世所領導的英國。
西班牙與英法的和約暗示著西班牙可以恢復往昔在荷蘭行省的統治。而當時的荷蘭正由威廉一世之子，拿騷的莫理斯所領導著。莫理斯是一個雄才大略的軍事家，在1590年以前，他就收復了不少由西班牙控制的失地。因此，西班牙在與英國締結和約後，就再次對荷蘭用兵。1607年，西班牙再次遭到破產的災難。為了不致損失慘重，西班牙及聯合省便在1609年簽署十二年停戰協定，西班牙終於再次回到和平。
西班牙在這個停戰協定的期間，國力及經濟得到了一定恢復。因此，它再次蠢蠢欲動，打算重奪霸主的地位。可是，腓力二世的繼承人腓力三世卻是一個無心理政的人。而其首相亦對西班牙的盟國奧地利的事務漠不關心。
1618年，腓力撤換了首相，換來了一個饒有經驗的駐維也納使節當首相。他認為，只要西班牙和奧地利有緊密的合作，就能排除復甦中的法國及消滅荷蘭境內的反對勢力。可是，當同年的第二次布拉格擲出窗外事件發生後，奧地利及神聖羅馬皇帝斐迪南二世便開始著手對付清教徒聯盟及波希米亚的反抗。而該位新上任的西班牙首相便大力慫恿腓力聯合奧地利哈布斯堡王室加入戰團。最後，西班牙、奧地利及德意志的天主教諸侯國組成「天主教聯盟」，共同反對新教的波希米亞。自此，歐洲各國相繼參戰，引發起影響深遠的「三十年戰爭」，全歐陷入數十年的混戰時代。
1621年，軟弱的腓力三世由其子，比他更虔誠的腓力四世所替換，這導致了西班牙進入一個狂熱的戰爭狀態。同年，荷蘭開始向西班牙宣戰，但反陷於失利狀態。因此，法國的黎塞留提議荷蘭、英國及丹麥三國結成反奧聯盟，而1625年丹麥國王基士揚四世正式對神聖羅馬帝國出兵。可惜，在天主教聯盟軍統帥華倫斯坦帶領下，神聖羅馬帝國成功擊退丹麥，並把勢力擴展至波羅的海，而西班牙等一眾天主教聯盟國亦處於上風。
[编辑] 羅克魯瓦戰役：西班牙帝國中衰之路(1626–1643年)
Olivares was a man sadly out of time; he realized that Spain needed to reform, and to reform it needed peace. The destruction of the United Provinces of the Netherlands was added to his list of necessities because behind every anti-Habsburg coalition there was Dutch money: Dutch bankers stood behind the East India merchants of Seville, and everywhere in the world Dutch entrepreneurship and colonists undermined Spanish and Portuguese hegemony. Spinola and the Spanish army were focused on the Netherlands, and the war seemed to be going in Spain's favor.
1627 saw the collapse of the Castilian economy. The Spanish had been debasing their currency to pay for the war and prices exploded in Spain just as they had in previous years in Austria. Until 1631, parts of Castile operated on a barter economy as a result of the currency crisis and the government was unable to collect any meaningful taxes from the peasantry, depending on its colonies. The Spanish armies in Germany resorted to "paying themselves" on the land. Olivares, who had backed certain tax measures in Spain pending the completion of the war, was further blamed for an embarrassing and fruitless war in Italy The Dutch, who during the Twelve Years' Truce had made their increasingly potent navy (see Battle of Gibraltar, 1607) a priority, devastated Spanish maritime trade, on which Spain was wholly dependent after the economic collapse. Spanish military resources were now fully stretched across Europe and also at sea protecting their maritime trade against the greatly improved Dutch fleet. In 1628 the Dutch captain Piet Hein captured the treasure fleet, badly undermining Spain's economy, while consolidating that of the Netherlands. The Spanish were simply no longer able to cope effectively with the growing naval threats, not only from the Netherlands but from France and England while still maintaining a strong naval presence in the Mediterranean to defend against the threat of the Ottoman navy and Muslim pirates. The Portuguese part of the empire was particularly afflicted by raids upon shipping and assaults upon trading posts and territories.
In 1630, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, one of history's most noted commanders, landed in Germany and relieved the port of Stralsund that was the last stronghold on the continent held by German forces belligerent to the Emperor. Gustavus then marched south winning notable victories at Breitenfeld and Lützen, attracting greater support for the Protestant cause the further he went. The situation for the Catholics improved with Gustavus's death at Lutzen in 1632 and a key victory at Nordlingen in 1634. From a position of strength, the Emperor approached the war-weary German states with a peace in 1635; many accepted, including the two most powerful, Brandenburg and Saxony. Then France entered.
Cardinal Richelieu had been a strong supporter of the Dutch and Protestants since the beginning of the war, sending funds and equipment in an attempt to stem Habsburg strength in Europe. Richelieu decided that the recently-signed Peace of Prague was contrary to French designs and declared war on the Holy Roman Emperor and Spain within months of the peace being signed. The more experienced Spanish forces scored initial successes; Olivares ordered a lightning campaign into northern France from the Spanish Netherlands, hoping to shatter the resolve of King Louis XIII's ministers and topple Richelieu. In the "-{année de Corbie}-", 1636, Spanish forces advanced as far south as Corbie, threatening Paris and quite nearly ending the war on their terms. After 1636, however, Olivares stopped the advance, fearful of provoking another disastrous bankruptcy. The hesitation in pressing home the advantage proved fateful. The Spanish army would never again penetrate so far. At the Battle of the Downs in 1639 a Spanish fleet carrying troops was destroyed by the Dutch navy, and the Spanish found themselves unable to adequately supply and reinforce their forces in the Netherlands. The Spanish Army of Flanders, which represented the finest of Spanish soldiery and leadership, faced a French invasion led by Louis II de Bourbon, Prince de Condé in the Spanish Netherlands at Rocroi in 1643. The Spanish, led by Francisco de Melo, were devastated, with most of the Spanish infantry slaughtered or captured by French cavalry. The high reputation of the Army of Flanders was broken at Rocroi, and with it, the grandeur of Spain.
[编辑] 西班牙哈布斯堡王室下的帝國(1643-1713年)
傳統上，歷史學家認為西班牙經1643年的羅克魯瓦戰役後，就完全喪失了其在歐洲領地的統治權。可是，這場戰爭其實還沒完結。1640年代，臣屬於西班牙的加泰罗尼亚、那不勒斯及葡萄牙都在法國的煽動下爆發革命。With the Netherlands effectively lost after the Battle of Lens in 1648, the Spanish made peace with the Dutch and recognized the independent United Provinces in the Peace of Westphalia that ended both the Eighty Years' War and the Thirty Years' War.
War with France continued for eleven more years. Although France suffered from a civil war from 1648–52 (see Wars of the Fronde) the Spanish economy was so exhausted that it was unable to effectively cope. Spain retook Naples in 1648 and Catalonia in 1652, but the war came effectively to an end at the Battle of the Dunes (1658) where the French army under Vicomte de Turenne defeated the remnants of the Spanish army of the Netherlands. Spain agreed to the Peace of the Pyrenees in 1659 that ceded to France Roussillon, Foix, Artois, and much of Lorraine.
Portugal had rebelled in 1640 under the leadership of John IV of Portugal, a Braganza pretender to the throne. He had received widespread support from the Portuguese people, and the Spanish — who had to deal with rebellions elsewhere, along with the war against France – were unable to respond, and the Spanish and Portuguese had existed in a de facto state of peace from 1644 to 1657. When John IV died in 1657, the Spanish attempted to wrest Portugal from his son Alfonso VI of Portugal, but were defeated at Ameixial (1663) and Monte Claros (1665), leading to Spain's recognition of Portugal's independence in 1668.
Spain did have a huge overseas empire, but France was now the superpower in Europe, and the United Provinces in the Atlantic.
Charles II and his regency were incompetent in dealing with the War of Devolution that Louis XIV of France prosecuted against the Spanish Netherlands in 1667–68, losing considerable prestige and territory, including the cities of Lille and Charleroi. In the Nine Years' War Louis once again invaded the Spanish Netherlands. French forces led by the Duke of Luxembourg defeated the Spanish at Fleurus (1690), and subsequently defeated Dutch forces under William III of Orange, who fought on Spain's side. The war ended with most of the Spanish Netherlands under French occupation, including the important cities of Ghent and Luxembourg. The war revealed to Europe how vulnerable and backward the Spanish defenses and bureaucracy were, but the ineffective Spanish Habsburg government took no action to improve them.
The final decades of the seventeenth century saw utter decay and stagnation in Spain; while the rest of western Europe went through exciting changes in government and society — the Glorious Revolution in England and the reign of the Sun King in France — Spain remained adrift. The Spanish bureaucracy that had built up around the charismatic, industrious, and intelligent Charles I and Philip II demanded a strong and hardworking monarch; the weakness and lack of interest of Philip III and IV contributed to Spain's decay. Charles II was retarded and impotent. In his final will, the childless king of Spain left his throne to the Bourbon prince Philip of Anjou, rather than to a member of the family that had tormented him throughout his life. This resulted in the War of the Spanish Succession.
[编辑] 西班牙波旁王室下的帝國：改革與復甦(1713-1806年)
在烏得勒支條約(1713年4月11日簽署)下，歐洲列強決定了西班牙的命運。為了平衡歐洲的勢力，西班牙新君腓力五世繼續保留西班牙的海外殖民帝國，但割讓西屬尼德蘭、那不勒斯、米蘭及萨丁岛給奧地利；西西里岛及米蘭的一部份給予薩伏依；米諾卡島及直布羅陀則交予英國。也因如此，這個帝國在歐洲的版圖開始縮小。此外，西班牙更把西屬美洲殖民地奴隸販賣的專利權給予英國三十年，以及在西班牙港口的一切優惠。
波旁王朝的做法，主要是把目光集中在本土的事務上，而美洲殖民地的業務則開始放緩起來。此舉令西班牙再次回復了勢力，再次中興。The Spanish Bourbons' broadest intentions were to break the power of the entrenched aristocracy of the Criollos (locally born colonials of European descent), and, eventually, loosen the territorial control of the Society of Jesus over the virtually independent theocracies of Guarani -{Misiones}-: the Jesuits were expelled from Spanish America in 1767. In addition to the established -{consulados}- of Mexico City and Lima, firmly in the control of local landowners, a new rival -{consulado}- was set up at Vera Cruz.
Immediately Philip's government set up a ministry of the Navy and the Indies (1714) and created first a Honduras Company (1714), a Caracas Company (1728) and — the only one destined to thrive — a Havana Company (1740). In 1717–18 the structures for governing the Indies, the -{Consejo de Indias}- and the -{Casa de Contratación}- that governed investments in the cumbersome escorted fleets were transferred from Seville to Cadíz, which became the one port for all Indies trading (see flota system). Individual sailings at regular intervals were slow to displace the old habit of armed convoys, but by the 1760s there were regular packet ships plying the Atlantic between Cadíz and Havana and Puerto Rico, and at longer intervals to the Rio de la Plata, where an additional viceroyalty was created in 1776. The contraband trade that was the lifeblood of the Habsburg empire declined in proportion to registered shipping (a shipping registry having been established in 1735).
Two upheavals registered unease within Spanish America and at the same time demonstrated the renewed resiliency of the reformed system: the Tupac Amaru uprising in Peru in 1780 and the rebellion of the -{comunidades}- of Venezuela, both in part reactions to tighter, more efficient control.
As a result, in the 18th century Spain was basically a client state of France, and hardly a superpower. Its vast empire in the Americas made it relevant, but it is difficult — even in light of Floridablanca's reforms — to say that it was anywhere near the ranks of Austria or Russia, let alone France or Britain. Spain failed to recover Gibraltar. However the 18th century was a century of prosperity for the overseas Spanish Empire as trade within grew steadily, particularly in the second half of the century, under the Bourbon reforms. Rapid shipping growth from the mid-1740s was disrupted by a rampantly successful British navy during the Seven Years' War (1756–63). A gradual recovery from the wars end in 1763 was again interrupted by British attacks during Spain's involvement in the American Revolutionary War (1779–83). But with the last -{flota}- sailing in 1778, effectively bringing about free trade in the empire, shipping trade once again began growing, but this time at an extraordinary rate, expanding in size many times over in the 1780s.
The ending of Cadíz's trade monopoly with America brought about a rebirth of Spanish manufactures. Most notable was the rapidly growing textile industry of Catalonia which by the mid-1780s saw the first signs of industrialisation. This saw the emergence of a small polically-active commercial class in Barcelona. Though the scale of such industry was absolutely tiny compared to the vast industry in Lancashire, it was growing rapidly and was to become the biggest center of such industry in the Mediterranean the following century. However one must not exaggerate such scattered examples of local modernity, though they disprove the notion of economic stasis. Most of the improvement was in and around some major coastal cities and the major islands such as Cuba, with its plantations, and a renewed growth of precious metals mining in the Americas. On the other hand most of rural Spain and its empire, where the great bulk of the population lived, many in remote communities served by poor roads over often extremely rugged terrain, lived in backward conditions that were reinforced by intransigent age old customs. Agricultural productivity remained low despite efforts to introduce new techniques to an uninterested, exploited peasant and landless labouring class. Governments were inconsistent in their policies. Nevertheless a quickening tempo of life in the latter part of the century, however patchy, is discernible.
These modernizing economic and institutional reforms were to bear some fruit militarily when Spanish forces easily retook Naples and Sicily from the Austrians in 1734 (War of Polish Succession), thwarted British attempts to seize the strategic city of Cartagena de Indias and Cuba during the War of Jenkins' Ear (1739–42) and, though Spain lost territories to the emerging British superpower in the Seven Years' War (1756–63), it was to recover its losses and the British naval base in the Bahamas during the American Revolutionary War (1775–83), thus playing a not insignificant role in hampering British efforts in recovering their rebellious colonies.
The California mission planning was begun in 1769. The Nootka Convention (1791) resolved the dispute between Spain and Great Britain about the British settlement in Oregon to British Columbia. In 1791 the king of Spain gave Alessandro Malaspina an order to search for a Northwest Passage.
The Spanish empire had still not returned to first rate power status, but it had recovered considerably from the dark days at the beginning of the eighteenth century when it was totally at the mercy of other powers' political deals. The relatively peaceful century under the new monarchy had allowed it to rebuild and start the long process of modernizing its institutions and economy. The demographic decline of the seventeenth century had been reversed. It was now a strong middle ranking power with great power pretensions that could not be ignored. But time was to be against it. The growth of trade and wealth in the colonies caused increasing political tensions as frustration grew with the improving but still restrictive trade with Spain. Malaspina's recommendation to turn the empire into a looser confederation to help improve governance and trade so as to quell the growing political tensions between the élites of the empire's periphery and centre was suppressed by a monarchy afraid of losing control. It would take just a generation to prove the wisdom of Malaspina's report. All was to be swept away by the tumult that was to overtake Europe at the turn of the century with the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
[编辑] 西班牙殖民帝國的暮年(1808-1898年)
The first major territory Spain was to lose in the nineteenth century was the vast and wild Louisiana Territory, which stretched north to Canada and was ceded by France in 1763. The French, under Napoleon, took back possession as part of the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1800 and sold it to the United States (Louisiana Purchase, 1803).
The destruction of the main Spanish fleet, under French command, at the Battle of Trafalgar (1805) undermined Spain's ability to defend and hold on to its empire. The later intrusion of Napoleonic forces into Spain in 1808 (see Peninsular War) cut off effective connection with the empire. But it was internal tensions that ultimately ended the empire in the Americas.
Napoleon's sale in 1803 of the Louisiana Territory to the United States was to cause border disputes between the United States and Spain that, with rebellions in West Florida (1810) and in the remainder of Louisiana at the mouth of the Mississippi, led to their eventual cession to the United States, along with the sale of all of Florida, in the Adams–Onís Treaty (1819).
In 1808 the Spanish king was tricked and Spain was taken over by Napoleon without firing a shot, but the unpopular French provoked a popular uprising from the Spanish people and the grinding guerrilla warfare, which Napoleon dubbed his "ulcer", the Peninsular War, (brilliantly depicted by the painter Goya) ensued, followed by a power vacuum lasting up to a decade and turmoil for several decades, civil wars on succession disputes, a republic, and finally a corrupt liberal democracy. Spain lost all the colonial possessions in the first third of the century, except for Cuba, Puerto Rico and, isolated on the far side of the globe, the Philippines, Guam and nearby Pacific islands, as well as Spanish Sahara (mostly desert), parts of Morocco, and Spanish Guinea.
The wars of independence in the Americas were triggered by another failed British attempt to seize Spanish American territory, this time in the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata in 1806. The viceroy retreated hastily and disgracefully to the hills when defeated by a small British force. However when the Criollos militias and colonial army thrashed the now reinforced British force in 1807 and, with the example of the North American revolutionaries very much in their minds, they quickly set about the business of winning their own independence and inspiring independence movements elsewhere in the Americas. A long period of wars began which led to the independence of Paraguay (1811), Uruguay (1815, but subsequently ruled by Brazil until 1828), Argentina (1816) and Chile (1818). Further north Simon Bolivar led forces that won independence for the area that is currently Venezuela, Colombia (included Panama until 1903), Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia by 1825. In 1810 a free thinking priest, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, declared Mexican independence, which was won by 1821. Central America declared its independence in 1821 and was joined to Mexico for a brief time (1822–23). Santo Domingo likewise declared independence in 1821 and began negotiating for inclusion in Bolivar's Republic of Gran Colombia, but was quickly occupied by Haiti, which ruled it until an 1844 revolution. Thus only Cuba and Puerto Rico remained in Spanish hands in the New World.
In devastated Spain the post-Napoleonic era created a political vacuum, broke apart any traditional consensus on sovereignity, fragmented the country politically and regionally and unleashed wars and disputes between progressives, liberals and the reactionaries, the last in particular being unable to accept the reality of the country's greatly reduced status internationally. The result was constant instability that inhibited Spain's development, which had started fitfully gathering pace in the previous century. A brief period of improvement occurred in the 1870s when the capable Alfonso XII of Spain and his thoughtful ministers succeeded in restoring some vigour to Spanish politics and prestige, in part by accepting and working intelligently within the reality of the country's reduced circumstances.
An increasing level of nationalist, anti-colonial uprisings in various colonies culminated with the Spanish–American War of 1898 in which Spain came into conflict with the United States over Cuba. Military defeat was followed by the independence of Cuba and the cession, for US$20 million, of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam to the United States. Her American presence ended, Spain then sold her Pacific Ocean possessions to Germany in 1899, retaining only her African territories.
[编辑] 帝國最後的希望：非洲殖民地(1898–1975年)
1481年，羅馬教廷頒布「教皇詔書」，同意葡萄牙可得到加那利群岛以南的島嶼及土地。而西班牙則可繼續維持其在非洲的聖克魯斯島、梅利利亚、錫茲內羅斯城、奧蘭、阿爾及爾、波其亞、的黎波里、突尼斯及休達等地的統治權。
1778年，費爾南多波島(今比奧克島)及毗連的小島，都被割讓予西班牙。1848年，西班牙軍隊征服舍法里納斯群島。而西班牙更在1860年與摩洛哥發生戰爭，後者戰敗，雙方簽署丹吉爾條約，摩洛哥割讓西迪伊夫尼予西班牙。而後續十年西班牙與法國的合作令前者得以在這些城市的南部建立起保護領，並推而廣之地擴張其勢力，1884年的柏林會議中，歐洲列強商討如何瓜分非洲殖民地，而西班牙在此會議後，其影響力就受國際承認：西班牙得以共同管治西迪伊夫尼及西撒哈拉兩地。西班牙並宣佈從几內亚海岸的波加德角至布朗角一帶建立起西班牙保護領，而木尼河區(位於今赤道几內亚境內)更分別在1885及1900年漸漸成為西班牙保護國及殖民地。至於1900年的巴黎條約基本上解決了歐洲各國在幾內亞大陸上的紛爭。而1893年一場短暫的戰爭更令西班牙得以擴張其在梅利利亞南部的勢力。
1911年，摩洛哥遭到法國及西班牙的瓜分。柏柏爾人的部落開始作亂，此後更造成西班牙軍日後的失利及混亂。1923年，丹吉尔被宣佈為一個由法國、英國及西班牙(後來義大利更參與其中)共同託管的國際城市。而一個西班牙退役軍人弗朗西斯科·佛朗哥將軍，在1936年發動了西班牙內战，並成功奪權。爾後，比奧克島及木尼河區合併為西屬幾內亞。此外，在第二次世界大戰間，法國建立起維希政權，後者更把丹吉爾等地拱手讓予佛朗哥統治下的西班牙。
在20世紀上半葉，西班牙缺乏財富，亦沒有興趣來發展其非洲殖民地的基建及經濟。但是在溫和的專制主義影響下，西班牙首次在比奧克島開墾一個專門種植可可的農園，更招聘當地的尼日利亞人作為傭工。此後，西班牙更大力發展赤道几內亚的教育及醫療設備，令該地人民的識字率及生存率大大提升。
1956年，法屬摩洛哥獨立，西班牙交出西屬摩洛哥予這個新國家，但保留其在西迪伊夫尼、塔爾法亞及西屬撒哈拉(今西撒哈拉)的控制權。摩洛哥蘇丹(後來成為國王)穆罕默德五世早就對這幾片土地垂涎三尺，便在1957年入侵西屬撒哈拉。1958年，西班牙把塔爾法亞割予摩洛哥，更把原本位於西屬撒哈拉的兩個統治區合併為一個省份。1959年，西班牙在几內亚湾一帶的轄區建立起一些類同西班牙大都市規模的省份，並設立總督一職加以管治。此外，西班牙殖民政府更在這些殖民地間大力推行民主政治制度，如赤道几內亞第一次的民主選舉也在1959年進行，它更在西班牙國會中佔一席位。1963年12月，赤道几內亞正式通過基本法，合併兩個省份，成立自治政府。
1968年3月，在聯合國及赤道几內亞的民族主義者施加的壓力下，西班牙宣佈會同意赤道几內亞的獨立。1968年，赤道几內亚成功取得獨立，成為非洲中人均收入最高的國家。1969年，西班牙再一次受到國際壓力而被迫交還西迪伊夫尼予摩洛哥。而西屬撒哈拉則直至1975年才脫離西班牙的直接管轄。至於西班牙在西非的加那利群岛及非洲的一些領地則維持至今。可是，摩洛哥卻對此宣示主權，並多次向西班牙軍發動攻擊，如2002年西班牙海軍就驅逐了摩洛哥軍。
[编辑] 西班牙帝國的遺產
16世紀開始，西班牙開始建立美洲殖民地，使西班牙語和天主教傳播到美洲、密克羅尼西亞聯邦、關島、馬里亞納群島、帛琉和菲律賓。
[编辑] 虛擬的西班牙帝國
The Spanish Empire has often been portrayed in fiction. Originally such works described the empire because it was a contemporary part of life. As example, the Sack of Rome (1527) is told in La Lozana Andaluza by Francisco Delicado and the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire in Matthew Reilly novel Temple,
The Adventurer by Mika Waltari includes several historical events.
Some references are made in a science fiction context, as in Small Gods, (1992) one of the Discworld Novels by Terry Pratchett or Stephen Baxter's 2003 novel Coalescent.
[编辑] 參考資料
- Armstrong, Edward (1902). The emperor Charles V. New York: The Macmillan Company
- Black, Jeremy (1996). The Cambridge illustrated atlas of warfare: Renaissance to revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-47033-1
- Braudel, Fernand (1972). The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, trans. Siân Reynolds. New York: Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-090566-2
- Fernand Braudel, The Perspective of the World (part iii of Civilization and Capitalism) 1979, translated 1985.
- Brown, J. and Elliott, J. H. (1980). A palace for a king. The Buen Retiro and the Court of Philip IV. New Haven: Yale University Press
- Brown, Jonathan (1998). Painting in Spain : 1500–1700. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06472-1
- Dominguez Ortiz, Antonio (1971). The golden age of Spain, 1516-1659. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-297-00405-0
- Edwards, John (2000). The Spain of the Catholic Monarchs, 1474-1520. New York: Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16165-1
- Harman, Alec (1969). Late Renaissance and Baroque music. New York: Schocken Books.
- Kamen, Henry (1998). Philip of Spain. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-07800-5
- Kamen, Henry (2003). Empire: How Spain Became a World Power, 1492-1763. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-093264-3
- Kamen, Henry (2005). Spain 1469-1714. A Society of Conflict (3rd ed.) London and New York: Pearson Longman. ISBN 0-582-78464-6
- Parker, Geoffrey (1997). The Thirty Years' War (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-12883-8
- Parker, Geoffrey (1972). The Army of flanders and the Spanish road, 1567-1659; the logistics of Spanish victory and defeat in the Low Countries' Wars.. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-08462-8
- Parker, Geoffrey (1977). The Dutch revolt. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-8014-1136-X
- Parker, Geoffrey (1978). Philip II. Boston: Little, Brown. ISBN 0-316-69080-5
- Parker, Geoffrey (1997). The general crisis of the seventeenth century. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-16518-0
- Stradling, R. A. (1988). Philip IV and the government of Spain. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-32333-9
- Various (1983). Historia de la literatura espanola. Barcelona: Editorial Ariel
- Wright, Esmond, ed. (1984). History of the World, Part II: The last five hundred years (3rd ed.). New York: Hamlyn Publishing. ISBN 0-517-43644-2.
[编辑] 參見
- Consulado
- Black Legend
- History of Spain
- New Laws
- New Spain
- Population history of American indigenous peoples
- Spain
- Valladolid debate
[编辑] 外部連結
- Library of Iberian Resources Online, Stanley G Payne A History of Spain and Portugal vol 1 Ch 13 "The Spanish Empire"
- The Mestizo-Mexicano-Indian History in the USA
- Sizes of the largest Empires in History:"To Rule the Earth"
|
|
|
|---|---|
|
|
|
