Perang Salib

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Perang Salib
Pertama – Rakyat – Jerman – 1101 – Kedua – Ketiga – Keempat

Perang Salib ialah beberapa siri kempen ketenteraan yang berlaku sekitar kurun ke-11 masihi hingga kurun ke-13 masihi. Pada asalnya misi mereka ialah menawan Baitulmuqaddis dan tanah-tanah di sekitarnya daripada orang Muslim, tetapi ada yang disasarkan kepada kumpulan berbeza. Contohnya, Perang Salib Keempat yang menawan Kota Constantinople.

Jadual isi kandungan 1 Latar belakang 2 Historical context 3 The major crusades 3.1 First Crusade 3.2 Second Crusade 3.3 Third Crusade 3.4 Fourth Crusade 3.5 Albigensian Crusade 3.6 Children's Crusade 3.7 Fifth Crusade 3.8 Sixth Crusade 3.9 Seventh Crusade 3.10 Eighth Crusade 3.11 Ninth Crusade 3.12 Crusades in Baltic and Central Europe 4 Crusade legacy 4.1 Europe 4.2 Islamic world 4.3 Jewish community 4.4 The Caucasus 5 Usage of the term "crusade" 6 Popular reputation 6.1 Eastern Orthodoxy 7 Lihat juga 8 Rujukan dan Bacaan Lanjutan 9 Nota 10 Pautan Lain

[Sunting] Latar belakang

The origins of the crusades lie in developments in Western Europe earlier in the Middle Ages, as well as the deteriorating situation of the Byzantine Empire in the east. The breakdown of the Carolingian Empire in the later 9th century, combined with the relative stabilisation of local European borders after the Christianisation of the Vikings, Slavs, and Magyars, meant that there was an entire class of warriors who now had very little to do but fight amongst themselves and terrorise the peasant population. The Church tried to stem this violence with the Peace and Truce of God movements, which was somewhat successful, but trained warriors always sought an outlet for their violence. One later outlet was the Reconquista in Spain and Portugal, which at times occupied Iberian knights and some mercenaries from elsewhere in Europe in the fight against the Islamic Moors.

In 1009 the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah had sacked the pilgrimage hospice in Jerusalem and destroyed the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It was later rebuilt by the Byzantine emperor, but this event may have been remembered in Europe and may have helped spark the crusade. [2] In 1063, Pope Alexander II had given papal blessing to Iberian Christians in their wars against the Muslims, granting both a papal standard (the vexillum sancti Petri) and an indulgence to those who were killed in battle. Pleas from the Byzantine Emperors, now threatened under by the Seljuks, first in 1074 from Emperor Michael VII to Pope Gregory VII and in 1095 from Emperor Alexius I Comnenus to Pope Urban II, thus fell on ready ears.

The Crusades were in part an outlet for an intense religious piety which rose up in the late 11th century among the lay public. This was due in part to the Investiture Controversy, which had started around 1075 and was still on-going during the First Crusade. Christendom had been greatly affected by the Investiture Controversy; as both sides tried to marshal public opinion in their favor, people became personally engaged in a dramatic religious controversy. The result was an awakening of intense Christian piety and public interest in religious affairs. This was further strengthened by religious propaganda, advocating Just War in order to retake the Holy Land, which included Jerusalem (where the death, resurrection and ascension into heaven of Jesus took place) and Antioch (the first Christian city), from the Muslims. All of this eventually manifested in the overwhelming popular support for the First Crusade, and the religious vitality of the 12th century.

This background in the Christian West must be matched with that in the Muslim East. Muslim presence in the Holy Land goes back to the initial Arab conquest of Palestine in the 7th century. This did not interfere much with pilgrimage to Christian holy sites or the security of monasteries and Christian communities in the Holy Land of Christendom, and western Europeans were not much concerned with the loss of far-away Jerusalem when, in the ensuing decades and centuries, they were themselves faced with invasions by Muslims and other hostile non-Christians such as the Vikings and Magyars. However, the Muslim armies' successes were putting strong pressure on the Eastern Orthodox Byzantine Empire.

A turning point in western attitudes towards the east came in the year 1009, when the Fatimid caliph of Cairo, al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, had the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem destroyed. His successor permitted the Byzantine Empire to rebuild it under stringent circumstances, and pilgrimage was again permitted, but many stories began to be circulated in the West about the cruelty of Muslims toward Christian pilgrims; these stories then played an important role in the development of the crusades later in the century.

[Sunting] Historical context

It is necessary to look for the origin of a crusading ideal in the struggle between Christians and Muslims in Spain and consider how the idea of a holy war emerged from this background. — Norman F. Cantor

The immediate cause of the First Crusade was Alexius I's appeal to Pope Urban II for mercenaries to help him resist Muslim advances into territory of the Byzantine Empire. In 1071, at the Battle of Manzikert, the Byzantine Empire had been defeated, and this defeat led to the loss of all but the coastlands of Asia Minor (modern Turkey). Although the East-West Schism was brewing between the Catholic Western church and the Greek Orthodox Eastern church, Alexius I expected some help from a fellow Christian. However, the response was much larger, and less helpful, than Alexius I desired, as the Pope called for a large invasion force to not merely defend the Byzantine Empire but also retake Jerusalem.

When the First Crusade was preached in 1095, the Christian princes of northern Iberia had been fighting their way out of the mountains of Galicia and Asturias, the Basque Country and Navarre, with increasing success, for about a hundred years. The fall of Moorish Toledo to the Kingdom of León in 1085 was a major victory, but the turning points of the Reconquista still lay in the future. The disunity of the Muslim emirs was an essential factor, and the Christians, whose wives remained safely behind, were hard to beat: they knew nothing except fighting, they had no gardens or libraries to defend, and they worked their way forward through alien territory populated by infidels, where the Christian fighters felt they could afford to wreak havoc. All these factors were soon to be replayed in the fighting grounds of the East. Spanish historians have traditionally seen the Reconquista as the molding force in the Castilian character, with its sense that the highest good was to die fighting for the Christian cause of one's country.

While the Reconquista was the most prominent example of Christian war against Muslim conquests, it is not the only such example. The Norman adventurer Robert Guiscard had conquered the "toe of Italy," Calabria, in 1057 and was holding what had traditionally been Byzantine territory against the Muslims of Sicily. The maritime states of Pisa, Genoa and Catalonia were all actively fighting Islamic strongholds in Majorca and Sardinia, freeing the coasts of Italy and Catalonia from Muslim raids. Much earlier, of course, the Christian homelands of Syria, Lebanon, Palestine, Egypt, and so on had been conquered by Muslim armies. This long history of losing territories to a religious enemy, as well as a powerful pincer movement on all of Western Europe, created a powerful motive to respond to Byzantine emperor Alexius I's call for holy war to defend Christendom, and to recapture the lost lands, starting at the most important one of all, Jerusalem itself.

The papacy of Pope Gregory VII had struggled with reservations about the doctrinal validity of a holy war and the shedding of blood for the Lord and had resolved the question in favour of justified violence. More importantly to the Pope, the Christians who made pilgrimages to the Holy Land were being persecuted. Actions against Arians and other heretics offered historical precedents in a society where violence against unbelievers, and indeed against other Christians, was acceptable and common. Saint Augustine of Hippo, Gregory's intellectual model, had justified the use of force in the service of Christ in The City of God, and a Christian "just war" might enhance the wider standing of an aggressively ambitious leader of Europe, as Gregory saw himself. The northerners would be cemented to Rome and their troublesome knights could see the only kind of action that suited them. Previous attempts by the church to stem such violence, such as the concept of the "Peace of God", were not as successful as hoped. To the south of Rome, Normans were showing how such energies might be unleashed against both Arabs (in Sicily) and Byzantines (on the mainland). A Latin hegemony in the Levant would provide leverage in resolving the Papacy's claims of supremacy over the Patriarch of Constantinople, which had resulted in the Great Schism of 1054, a rift that might yet be resolved through the force of Frankish arms.

In the Byzantine homelands the Eastern Emperor's weakness was revealed by the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, which reduced the Empire's Asian territory to a region in western Anatolia and around Constantinople. A sure sign of Byzantine desperation was the appeal of Alexius I Comnenus to his enemy the Pope for aid. But Gregory was occupied with the Investiture Controversy and could not call on the German emperor and the crusade never took shape.

For Gregory's more moderate successor Pope Urban II, a crusade would serve to reunite Christendom, bolster the Papacy, and perhaps bring the East under his control. The disaffected Germans and the Normans were not to be counted on, but the heart and backbone of a crusade could be found in Urban's own homeland among the northern French.

On a popular level, the first crusades unleashed a wave of impassioned, personally felt pious fury that was expressed in the massacres of Jews that accompanied the movement of mobs through Europe, as well as the violent treatment of "schismatic" Orthodox Christians of the east. The violence against the Orthodox Christians culminated in the sack of Constantinople in 1204, in which most of the Crusading armies took part.

The 13th century crusades never expressed such a popular fever, and after Acre fell for the last time in 1291, and after the extermination of the Occitan Cathars in the Albigensian Crusade, the crusading ideal became devalued by Papal justifications of political and territorial aggressions within Catholic Europe.

The last crusading order of knights to hold territory were the Knights Hospitaller. After the final fall of Acre they took control of the island of Rhodes, and in the sixteenth century were driven to Malta. These last crusaders were finally unseated by Napoleon in 1798.

[Sunting] The major crusades

A traditional numbering scheme for the crusades gives us nine during the 11th to 13th centuries, as well as other smaller crusades that are mostly contemporaneous and unnumbered. There were frequent "minor" crusades throughout this period, not only in Palestine but also in the Iberian Peninsula and central Europe, against not only Muslims, but also Christian heretics and personal enemies of the Papacy or other powerful monarchs. Such "crusades" continued into the 16th century, until the Renaissance and Reformation when the political and religious climate of Europe was significantly different than that of the Middle Ages. The following is a listing of the "major" crusades.

[Sunting] First Crusade

Full article: First Crusade

Perang SalibPertama diprakarsai oleh Paus Urbanus II pada pertemuan di Dewan Perwakilan Clermont tanggal 17 Noember 1095. dalam rapat tersebut, Paus Urbanus II menginginkan Yerussalem jatuh ke pelukan kaum Frank. Ia beralasan sejak kejatuhan Konstantinopel ke tangan bangsa Sljuk, bangsa Eropa tang hendak berziarah ke Gereja Makam Suci Yerussalem semakin sulit dan membengkaknya biaya berpergian. Hal itu disebabkan bangsa Saljuk menututp akses ke Yerussalem guna kestabilan negara mereka. Jalur pun diubah ke jalur laut yang lebih mudah digunakan daripada mencari alternative jalur darat lain. Pihak Vatikan langsung mengirim surat permohonan bantuan kepada raja-raja di Eropa beserta sukarelawan dari rakyatnya. Mereka juga membuka pendaftaran secara umum bagi yang ingin mengikuti perang. Pihak Vatikan menjanjikan surga dan penghapusan segala dosa-dosa mereka. Sebelum keberangkatan mereka, pihak Vatikan memberi nasihat agar membunuh umat Islam yang bagi mereka sama halnya dengan kaum kafir yang halal dibunuh dan bagi pembunuhnya dijamin masuk surga atau nirwana. Inilah pemicu pembantaian yang dilakukan oleh Tentara Salib di kota-kota umat Islam yang telah mereka kuasai seperti Antiokhia dan Yerussalem hingga para sejarahwan Timur Tengah menggambarkan para Ksatria Salib susah berjalan di Yerussalem karena seluruh kota dibanjiri hingga setinggi lutut para Tentara Salib. Dengan antusiasnya, para pembesar Eropa mengirimkan orang-orang terbaikmya. Mereka juga menyertakan rakyat jelata dari berbagai profesi sehingga terkumpul sekitar tiga ratus ribu pasukan di bawah pimpinan Raymond dari Toulouse, Behomend dari Sisilia, dan Godfrey dari Boullin. Para pemimpin akan menjadi para pembasar di Kerajaan Suci Yerussalem. Tentara Salib berkumpul di Konstantinopel guna membantu Romawi Timur pimpinan Alexius Comnenus melawan bangsa Saljuk. Tentara Salib mulai melakukan perjalanan sucinya yang panjang. Pada tanggal 4Juni1097, Tentara Salib menakhlukan ibukota Saljuk menyebabkan di bawah pimpinan Sultan Qilij Arslan mengalami kekalahan besar-besaran di pertempuran Dorylaeum di dataran tinggi Anatolia. Tentara Salib melanjutkan ekspansinya ke Anthiokhia. Kota ini dikepung cukup lama dari Oktober 1097 hingga Juni 1098. gubernur Antiokhia, Yaghisian, mengusir kaum Kristen yang terkenal dengan sebutan kaum Kristen Tinur, tinggal di dalam kota dan telah bermukin sejak bertahun-tahun yang lalu. Alasan pengusiran tersebut agar mereka tidak dilemma akan membela siapa, bangsa mereka atau tetangga mereka, jika Tentara Salib berhasil menguasai kota tersebut. Yaghisian memohon kepada penguasa Syiriah untuk membantunyamengusir Tentara Salib dengan permohonan bantuan pasukam. Penguasa Syiriah segera mengirim bala bantuan setelah surat dari Yaghisiyab tiba. Mereka menerapkan strategi pengepungan agar Tentara Salib tidak mendapat psokan makanan dari luar. Strategi Islam sangat manjur hingga para kstria kuda Tentara Salib memakan kuda-kuda mereka dan pera tentara pejalan kaki memakan dedaunan agar mereka dapat bertahan hidup. Walaupun strategi pemutusan hubungan dunia luar yang dilakukan pasukan Islam, Tentara Salib masih mampu merebut Antiokhia dengan melawan pasukan Islam yang bercekupan persediaan bahan makananya. Kekalahan pasukan Islam dipicu rasa ketidakpercayaan antar sesama pasukan. Para tantara bantuan dari Syiria tidak mau diperintah oleh gubernur Antiokhia, Yaghisian, karena mereka beranggapan panglima dari Syiria lebih tinggi daripada gubernur sebuah provimsi dari Syiria. Kekalahan mereka juga disebabkan terdapat pengkhianat yang membocorkan rahasia pasukan Islam kepada para pimpinan Tentara Salib yang menjanjikan pembawa kabar tersebut dengan hadiah yang besar. Setelah menguasai penuh Antiokhia, Tentara Salib bergerak maju menuju Ma’araat al-Nu’man dan menakhlukannya pada tanggal 2 Desember 1098. Ma’araat al-Nu’man bukanlah sebuah kota besar seperi Yerussalem ataupun Damaskus. Tetapi, kekejaman Tentara Salib tidak akan pernah terhapus dari memori umat Islam. Pembantaian yang dipicu bahwa membunuh umat Islam dijamin surga membuat Tentara Salib berusaha membunuhi umat Islam sebanyak-banyaknya. Hal lain dipicu karena Tentara Salib telah memberi penduduk stetmpat untuk menyerah dan menyerahkan kota tersebut secara damai. Namun, para penduduk menolak walaupun kota tersebut tidak memiliki tentara. Akibatnya, Tentara Salib merebut kota Ma’araat al-Nu’man dengan kekerasan dan membantai seluruh penduduk kta tersebut. Setelah menabah kekuatan mereka dengan penambahan daerah kekuasaan, mereka segera bergerak ke tujuan utama mereka, yaitu kota Yerussalem. Demi kelancaran pengiriman pasukan tambahan dari Eropa, Tentara Salib menguasai daerah pesisir pantai Suriah. Juga memperbesar pengaruh mereka di Mediterania Timur. Pergerakan mereka ke Yerussalem tidak ada hambatan berarti sehingga Yerussalem ke tangan kaum Frank tanpa perlawanan pada hari Jum’at, 5Juli 1099 dan mengangkat salah satu pimpinan mereka, Godfrey the Bouillon sebagai penguasa Yerussalem. Perpecahan umat Islam yang terjadi di masa itu adalah penyebab utama hilangnya eksistensi umat Islam di Yerussalem. Jatuhnya Yerussalem ke tangan kaum Frank menandakan berakhirnya Perang Salib Pertama.

[Sunting] Second Crusade

Perang Salib Kedua

Setelah kejatuhan Yerussalem ke tangan kaum Frank, mereka melakukan serangan ke daerah sekitar guna memperluas kekuasaan mereka. Karena factor geografis, yakni di daerah-daerah pantai Suriah yang membentang menghadap ke Barat, berhasil dikuasai Tentara Salib. Tentara Salib juga menakhlukan Tripoli. Takhluknya Tripli ke tangan Tentara Salib menandakan berakhirnya ekspansi kaum Frank untuk memperluas Negara Salib, negara dirian Tentara Salib yang berupa kota-kota takhlukan mereka di Mediterania Timur. Ekspansi Tentara Salib selanjutnya banyak menuai kegagalan sebab penyerangan mereka ke daerah Timur yang terdiri atas Aleppo dan Damaskus sebagai tujuan operasi militer mereka mendapat perlawanan keras dari pasukan setempat yang mempu mengimbangi kekuatan besar Tentara Salib. Di dua kota inilah semangat jihad umat Islam, semangat memerangi kaum kafir yang sempat hilang di tahun-tahun sebelumnya akibat perpecahan agama, tumbuh kembali. Para ulama memiliki peran yang sangat penting dibalik tumbuhnya semangat jihad umat Islam. Al-Sulami, seorang ulama sufi di Masjid Umayyah, Damaskus, adalah ulama yang melopori dakwah bertemakan jihad di mimbar masjid. Menurut al-Sulami, kekalahan yang diderita umat Islam dari perang melawan Tentara Salib disebabkan hukuman dari Allah SWT karena umat Islam telah mengabaikan kewajiban-kewajiban agama, khususnya jihad di jalan Allah. Al-Sulami berpendapat jika umat Islam menjalankan kewajiban-kewajibannya sebagaimana yang telah ditentukan oleh Allah SWT, maka umat Islam akan mencintai agamanya dan akan berjuang sekuat tenaga demi agamanya dengan konsep jihad. Semangat jihad inilah yang akan mengembalikna kejayaan umat Islam karena didalam jihad itu, Allah SWT menjanjikan surga bagi umatNya yang gugur di medan perang. Inilah yang dicari para mujhidin-mujahidin Islam yang imanya kuat. Langkah al-Sulami ini segera diikuti oleh berbagai ulama di Suriah. Banyak kelompok-kelompok mujahidin akibat seruan-seruan ulama di berbagai tempat. Tetapi, mereka tidak didukung dengan keinginan politik atau militer untuk bertindak bersama dari pihak penguasa saat itu. Il-Gaza, penguasa kaum Turki dari Mardin, merupakan pemimpin yang pertama dalam sejarah, setelah ekspansi Tentara Salib di Perang Salib Pertama, sebagai pimpinan yang mewadahi para mujahidin-mujahidin Islam. Dengan bantuan seorang ulama, Ibn al-Khasysyab, meraka membawa umat Islam memenangkan peperangan melawan Tentara Salib di Pertemuran Ladang Darah di Balath. Kemenangan ini membawa dampak yang besar bagi psikologis umat Islam. Kemenangan ini menghapus anggapan meraka tentang kekuatan Tentara Salib tidak terkalahkan oleh siapapun. Kemenangan Zengi di tahun 1144 mempertebal rasa percaya diri mereka. Keberhasilan pasukan Zengi merebut Edessa sangat berharga, karena Edessa merupakan kota Negara Salib pertama yang berhasil direbut oleh umat Islam. Walaupun dua tahun kemudian Zengi tewas akibat dibunuh, Zengi tetaplah seorang pahlawan bagi umat Islam yang menambahkan semangat jihad mereka dan Zengi pun menularkan semangat jihad kepada penerusnya Nuruddin, tokoh utama Islam di Perang Salib Kedua yang juga berstatus putra Zengi. Nuruddin memimpin Edessa dan Aleppo, daerah kekuasaan ayahnya terdahuku, dan memperluas daerahnya dengan mengalahkan Tentara Salib di Inap di bulan Juni 1149. Tahun 1154, Nuruddin telah berhasil menyatukan Suriah. Tahun 1163, Amalric naik tahta menjadi pemimpin Tentara Salib yang baru. Disinilah awal baru karier Nuruddin dimulai. Amalric melihat peluang besar untuk menguasai Mesir dari penguasaan Fatimiyah, yang sekarat dan melemah akibat kematian menteri mereka. Nuruddin, selain memerangi kaum Frank, ia jiga melakukan intervensi ke masalah internal mereka. Usaha Nuruddin menuai keberhasilan karena Syawar, menteri Fatimiyah, memohon kepada Nuruddin untuk menggulingkan musuh politiknya, Dirgham, telah menggulingkannya dan telah bersekutu dengan kaum Frank. Nuruddin pun mengirim pasukannya di bawah Syirkuh paman dari Salahudin al-Ayyubi, untuk mengembalikan kekuasaan Syawar di Kairo. Pertempuran di Kairo akhirnya dimenangkan oleh pasukan Syirkuh dan mengantarkan Syawar menjadi menteri Fatimiyah. Operasi militer kedua disponsori langsung oleh Nuruddin dan memperoleh kemenangan kecil tahun 1168. namun kaum Frank kembali ingin menancapkan kukunya di Kairo di tahun yang sama yang memaksa Syawar kembali meminta bantuan kepada Nuruddin. Nuruddin kembali memberi kepercayaan kepada Syirkuh untuk memimpin pasukan Islam melawan kaum Frank. Dalam pertempuran ketiga ini, Syirkuh tewas di tahun 1169 dan digantikan oleh Salahudin, dan pasukan Islam memperoleh kemenangan atas kaum Frank. Atas keberhasilan Salahudin mengusir kaum Frank dari tanah Mesir, khalifah Fatimiyah menaruh Salahudin di jajaran pemerintahan Kairo. Karier Salahudin semakin naik dengan terpilihnya ia seabagi menteri di bawah khalifah al-Adid. Ketika khaifah al-Adid wafat, Salahudin mengambil langkah penting, yaitu menghancurkan Dinasti Fatimiyah dan mengembalikan Mesir di bawah kekhalifahan Abbasiyah di Bagdad. Operasi militer Salahudin ini masih diatasnamakan pemimpinnya, Nuruddin. Kepatuhan Salahudin kepada Nuruddin hingga tahun 1172 karena Salahudin menganggap dirinya bias memimpin umat Islam. Perseteruan ini tidak pernah terjadi karena Nuruddin telah dipanggil Allah SWT tahun 1174. Kematian Nuruddin ini bias mencegah perseteruan anatara Islam. Jika Nuruddin masih hidup, Islam bias terpecah menjadi dua, yaitu pendukung Nuruddin dan Salahudin. Bisa dibayangkan bagaimana jika keduanya, yang notabenya sebagai pemimpin kuat umat Islam bertempur. Salahudin pun memproklamasikan dirinya sebagai penerus Nuruddin, walaupun banyak ditentang oleh keluarga Nuruddin. Dan Salahudin mampu menunjukkan kredibilitasnya dengan memerangi kelompok-kelompok Islam penentangnya. Dengan jatuhnya Aleppo tahun 1183, Salahudin telah menyatukan Mesir dan Suriah dibawah satu komando. Salahudin pun mengalihkan perhatiannya ke musuh utama umat Islam sebenarnya, yaitu Tentara Salib. Antara Salahudin dengan Raja Baldwin IV, penguasa Yeruusalem, mengadakan perjanjian damai. Dalam masa damai ini, kehidupan Mediterania Timur kembali berjalan normal. Hingga perjanjian antara kedua raja ini sempat retak akibat ulah Reynald the Chatillon, salah satu pembesar kaum Frank yang sangat membenci Islam. Aksi-aksi Reyald the Chatillon membuat umat Islam marah. Bahkan di mata umat Islam, Reynald the Chatillon dianggap pembesar kaum Frank terburuk. Aksi-aksi Reynald yang mengundang kemarahan umat Islam seperti, keinginan Reynald menghancurkan kkota-kota suci umat Islam, Mekkah dan Madinah, lewat laut Merah. Ia juga menyerang kafilah-kafilah Islam sewaktu perjanjian damai. Salahudin pun mengirim pasukan Islam untuk menyerang kaum Frank ke Kerak, tempat Reynald tinggal. Balwin juga mengirim pasukannya ke Kerak setelah mendengar Salahudin hendak menyerang salah satu wilayahnya. Peperangan ini berhasil dengan perjanjian damai lagi dengan jaminan Reynald akan dihukum sendiri oleh tangan kaum Frank. Setahun kemudian, Salahudin sakit kerasdan penyembuhannya membutuhkan waktu yang sangat lama. Setahun kemudian, Baldwin IV wafat dan digantikan oleh Guy the Lusigna. Dengan Guy, yang merupakan teman dekat Reynald the Chatillon, maka perjanjian antara Islam dengan kaum Frank telah berakhir. Salahudin, yang telah sehat dari sakit kerasnya, segera menngumpulkan pasukan-pasukan umat Islam untuk berperang melawan Tentara Salib. Guy juga segera mengumpulkan pasukan guna menyerang Islam. maka terjadilah Perang Hittin, salah satu perang besar dalam sejarah dunia, yang dimenangkan pasukan Islam. Guy dan Reynald ditawan dan dihadapkan ke hadapan Salahudin. Reynald pun dibunuh oleh Salahudin dan Guy diseret saat penyerangan Salahudin ke Yerussalem. Kemudian pasukan Islam memenangkan pertempuran di Arce lima hari setelahnya. Wilayah dari Gaza hingga Jubayl dikuasai Salahudin di awal September. Jmu’at, 2 Oktober 1187, Salahudin berhasil merebut Yerussalem. Jatuhnya Yerussaem ke tangan umat Islam kembali menjadi titik puncak keberhasilan Salahudin dalam memimpin umat Islam di Perang Salib. Merebut Yerussalem dari tangan kaum Frank adalah cita-cita terbesar Salahudin yang tercapai dan atas hasil ini, Perang Salib Kedua berakhir dengan kemenangan umat Islam.

[Sunting] Third Crusade

Full article: Third Crusade

In 1187, Saladin, Sultan of Egypt, recaptured Jerusalem. Pope Gregory VIII called for a crusade, which was led by several of Europe's most important leaders: Philip II of France, Richard I of England and Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor. Frederick drowned in Cilicia in 1190, leaving an unstable alliance between the English and the French. Philip left in 1191 after the Crusaders had recaptured Acre from the Muslims. The Crusader army headed down the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. They defeated the Muslims near Arsuf and were in sight of Jerusalem. However, the inability of the Crusaders to thrive in the locale due to inadequate food and water resulted in an empty victory. Richard left the following year after establishing a truce with Saladin. On Richard's way home, his ship was wrecked and he ended up in Austria. In Austria his enemy Duke Leopold captured him, delivered him to Frederick's son Henry VI and Richard was held for, literally, a king's ransom. By 1197, Henry felt himself ready for a Crusade, but he died in the same year of malaria.

[Sunting] Fourth Crusade

Full article: Fourth Crusade

Jerusalem having fallen back into Muslim hands a decade earlier, the Fourth Crusade was initiated in 1202 by Pope Innocent III, with the intention of invading the Holy Land through Egypt. The Venetians, under Doge Enrico Dandolo, gained control of this crusade and diverted it to, first to the Christian city of Zara, then to Constantinople where they attempted to place a Byzantine exile on the throne. After a series of misunderstandings and outbreaks of violence, the city was sacked in 1204.

[Sunting] Albigensian Crusade

Full article: Albigensian Crusade

The Albigensian Crusade was launched in 1209 to eliminate the heretical Cathars of southern France. It was a decades-long struggle that had as much to do with the concerns of northern France to extend its control southwards as it did with heresy. In the end, both the Cathars and the independence of southern France were exterminated.

[Sunting] Children's Crusade

Full article: Children's Crusade

The Children's Crusade is a possibly fictitious or misinterpreted crusade of 1212. The story is that an outburst of the old popular enthusiasm led a gathering of children in France and Germany, which Pope Innocent III interpreted as a reproof from heaven to their unworthy elders. None of the children actually reached the Holy Land; they were all sold as slaves, settled along the route to Jerusalem, or died of hunger during the journey.

[Sunting] Fifth Crusade

Full article: Fifth Crusade

By processions, prayers, and preaching, the Church attempted to set another crusade on foot, and the Fourth Council of the Lateran (1215) formulated a plan for the recovery of the Holy Land. A crusading force from Hungary, Austria, and Bavaria achieved a remarkable feat in the capture of Damietta in Egypt in 1219, but under the urgent insistence of the papal legate, Pelagius, they proceeded to a foolhardy attack on Cairo, and an inundation of the Nile compelled them to choose between surrender and destruction.

[Sunting] Sixth Crusade

Full article: Sixth Crusade

In 1228, Emperor Frederick II set sail from Brindisi for Syria, though laden with the papal excommunication. Through diplomacy he achieved unexpected success, Jerusalem, Nazareth, and Bethlehem being delivered to the Crusaders for a period of ten years. This was the first major crusade not initiated by the Papacy, a trend that was to continue for the rest of the century.

[Sunting] Seventh Crusade

Full article: Seventh Crusade

The papal interests represented by the Templars brought on a conflict with Egypt in 1243, and in the following year a Khwarezmian force summoned by the latter stormed Jerusalem. Although this provoked no widespread outrage in Europe as the fall of Jerusalem in 1187 had done, Louis IX of France organized a crusade against Egypt from 1248 to 1254, leaving from the newly constructed port of Aigues-Mortes in southern France. It was a failure and Louis spent much of the crusade living at the court of the Crusader kingdom in Acre. In the midst of this crusade was the first Shepherds' Crusade in 1251.

[Sunting] Eighth Crusade

Full article: Eighth Crusade

The eighth Crusade was organized by Louis IX in 1270, again sailing from Aigues-Mortes, initially to come to the aid of the remnants of the Crusader states in Syria. However, the crusade was diverted to Tunis, where Louis spent only two months before dying. The Eighth Crusade is sometimes counted as the Seventh, if the Fifth and Sixth Crusades are counted as a single crusade. The Ninth Crusade is sometimes also counted as part of the Eighth.

[Sunting] Ninth Crusade

Full article: Ninth Crusade

The future Edward I of England undertook another expedition in 1271, after having accompanied Louis on the Eighth Crusade. He accomplished very little in Syria and retired the following year after a truce. With the fall of Antioch (1268), Tripoli (1289), and Acre (1291) the last traces of the Christian rule in Syria disappeared.

[Sunting] Crusades in Baltic and Central Europe

Full article: Northern Crusades

The Crusades in the Baltic Sea area and in Central Europe were efforts by (mostly German) Christians to subjugate and convert the peoples of these areas to Christianity. These Crusades ranged from the 12th century, contemporaneous with the Second Crusade, to the 16th century.

Between 1232 and 1234, there was a crusade against the Stedingers. This crusade was special, because the Stedingers were no heathens or heretics, but fellow Roman Catholics. They were free Frisian farmers who resented attempts of the count of Oldenburg and the archbishop Bremen-Hamburg to make an end to their freedoms. The archbishop excommunicated them and the pope declared a crusade in 1232. The Stedingers were defeated in 1234.

[Sunting] Crusade legacy

The Crusades had profound and lasting historical impacts.

[Sunting] Europe

The Crusades had an enormous influence on the European Middle Ages. At times much of the continent was united under a powerful Papacy, but by the 14th century the old concept of Christendom was fragmented, and the development of centralized bureaucracies (the foundation of the modern nation-state) was well on its way in France, England, Burgundy, Portugal, Castile, and Aragon partly because of the dominance of the church at the beginning of the crusading era. Although Europe had been exposed to Islamic culture for centuries through contacts in Iberian Peninsula and Sicily, much Islamic thought, such as science, medicine, and architecture, was transferred to the west during the crusades. The military experiences of the crusades also had their effects in Europe; for example, European castles became massive stone structures, as they were in the east, rather than smaller wooden buildings as they had typically been in the past. The need to raise, transport and supply large armies led to a flourishing of trade throughout Europe. Roads largely unused since the days of Rome saw significant increases in traffic as local merchants began to expand their horizons. This was not only because the Crusades prepared Europe for travel, but rather that many wanted to travel after being reacquainted with the products of the Middle East. This also aided in the beginning of the Renaissance in Italy, as various Italian city-states from the very beginning had important and profitable trading colonies in the crusader states, both in the Holy Land and later in captured Byzantine territory. Despite the ultimate defeat in the Middle East, the Crusaders regained the Iberian Peninsula permanently and slowed down the military expansion of Islam.

[Sunting] Islamic world

The crusades had profound but localized effects upon the Islamic world, where the equivalents of "Franks" and "Crusaders" remained expressions of disdain. Muslims traditionally celebrate Saladin, the Kurdish warrior, as a hero against the Crusaders. In the 21st century, some in the Arab world, such as the Arab independence movement and Pan-Islamism movement, continue to call Western involvement in the Middle East a "crusade." The Crusades were regarded by the Islamic world as cruel and savage onslaughts by European Christians.

[Sunting] Jewish community

Rencana utama: History of the Jews and the Crusades

The Crusaders' atrocities against Jews in the German and Hungarian towns, later also in those of France and England, and in the massacres of non-combatants in Palestine and Syria have become a significant part of the history of anti-Semitism, although no Crusade was ever declared against Jews. These attacks left behind for centuries strong feelings of ill will on both sides. The social position of the Jews in western Europe was distinctly worsened, and legal restrictions increased during and after the Crusades. They prepared the way for the anti-Jewish legislation of Pope Innocent III and formed the turning-point in medieval anti-Semitism.

The Crusading period brought with it many narratives from Jewish sources. Among the more well known Jewish narratives are the chronicles of Solomon Bar Simson and Rabbi Eliezer bar Nathan, The Narrative of the Old Persecutions by Mainz Anonymous, and Sefer Zekhirah, and The Book of Remembrance, by Rabbi Ephraim of Bonn.

[Sunting] The Caucasus

In the Caucasus mountains of Georgia, in the remote highland region of Khevsureti, a tribe called the Khevsurs are thought to possibly be direct descendants of a party of crusaders who got separated from a larger army and have remained in isolation with some of the crusader culture intact. Into the 20th century relics of armour, weaponry and chain mail were still being used and passed down in such communities. Russian serviceman and ethnographer Arnold Zisserman who spent 25 years (1842-67) in the Caucasus, believed the exotic group of Georgian highlanders were descendants of the last Crusaders based on their customs, language, art and other evidence.^[1] American traveler Richard Halliburton (1900-1939) saw and recorded the customs of the tribe in 1935^[2].

[Sunting] Usage of the term "crusade"

For other uses of the term "crusade", see Crusade (disambiguation).

Carilah Crusade dalam Wiktionary, kamus yang bebas.

The crusades were never referred to as such by their participants. The original crusaders were known by various terms, including fideles Sancti Petri (the faithful of St. Peter) or milites Christi (knights of Christ). They saw themselves as undertaking an iter, a journey, or a peregrinatio, a pilgrimage, though pilgrims were usually forbidden from carrying arms. Like pilgrims, each crusader swore a vow (a votus), to be fulfilled on successfully reaching Jerusalem, and they were granted a cloth cross (crux) to be sewn into their clothes. This "taking of the cross", the crux, eventually became associated with the entire journey; the word "crusade" (coming into English from the French croisade, the Italian crociata, or the Portuguese cruzada) developed from this.

Since the 17th century, the term "crusade" has carried a connotation in the West of being a righteous campaign, usually to "root out evil", or to fight for a just cause. In a non-historical common or theological use, "crusade" has come to have a much broader emphatic or religious meaning —substantially removed from 'armed struggle.'

In a broader sense, "crusade" can be used, always in a rhetorical and metaphorical sense, to identify as righteous any war that is given a religious justification.

Ardent activists may also refer to their causes as "crusades," as in the "Crusade against Adult Illiteracy," or a "Crusade against Littering." In recent years, however, the use of "crusade" as a positive term has become less frequent in order to avoid giving offense to Muslims or others offended by the term. The term may also sarcastically or pejoratively characterize the zealotry of agenda promoters, for example with the monicker "Public Crusader" or the campaigns "Crusade for a women's right to choose," and the "Crusade for prayer in public schools."

[Sunting] Popular reputation

In Western Europe, the Crusades have traditionally been regarded by laypeople as heroic adventures, though the mass enthusiasm of common people was largely expended in the First Crusade, from which so few of their class returned. Today, the "Saracen" adversary is crystallized in the lone figure of Saladin; his adversary Richard the Lionheart is, in the English-speaking world, the archetypical crusader king, while Frederick Barbarossa (illustration, below left) and Louis IX fill the same symbolic niche in German and French culture. Even in contemporary areas, the crusades and their leaders were romanticized in popular literature; the Chanson d'Antioche was a chanson de geste dealing with the First Crusade, and the Song of Roland, dealing with the era of the similarly romanticized Charlemagne, was directly influenced by the experience of the crusades, going so far as to replace Charlemagne's historic Basque opponents with Muslims. A popular theme for troubadors was the knight winning the love of his lady by going on crusade in the east.

In the 14th century, Godfrey of Bouillon was united with the Trojan War and the adventures of Alexander the Great against a backdrop for military and courtly heroics of the Nine Worthies who stood as popular secular culture heroes into the 16th century, when more critical literary tastes ran instead to Torquato Tasso and Rinaldo and Armida, Roger and Angelica. Later, the rise of a more authentic sense of history among literate people brought the Crusades into a new focus for the Romantic generation in the romances of Sir Walter Scott in the early 19th century. Crusading imagery could be found even in the Crimean War, in which the United Kingdom and France were allied with the Muslim Ottoman Empire, and in the First World War, especially Allenby's capture of Jerusalem in 1917 (illustration, below right).

In Spain, the popular reputation of the Crusades is outshone by the particularly Spanish history of the Reconquista. El Cid is the central figure.

[Sunting] Eastern Orthodoxy

Like Muslims, Eastern Orthodox Christians also see the Crusades as attacks by the barbarian West, but centered on the sack of Constantinople in 1204. Many relics and artifacts taken from Constantinople are still in Roman Catholic hands, in the Vatican and elsewhere. Disagreement currently exists between modern Turks and Greeks over the claimant rights to the Greek Horses on the facade of St. Mark's in Venice. The Greeks argue that the frieze is inherently part of Greek culture and identity, similar to the "Elgin" Marbles and the Turks counter that the freize originated from what is now modern-day Istanbul. A picture of Turkish popular history of the Crusades can be assembled by compiling text of official Turkish brochures on Crusader fortifications in the Aegean coast and coastal islands. Countries of Central Europe, despite the fact that formally they also belonged to Western Christianity, were the most skeptical about the idea of Crusades. Many cities in Hungary were sacked by passing bands of Crusaders; one ruler of Poland refused to join a Crusade, allegedly because of the lack of beer in the Holy land. Later on Poland and Hungary were themselves subject to conquest from the Crusaders (see Teutonic Order), and therefore championed the notion that pagans have the right to live in peace and have property rights to their lands (see Pawel Wlodkowic).

[Sunting] Lihat juga

Lihat galeri mengenai: Category:Crusades di Wikimedia Commons.

• Crusade art
• Crusader states
• List of principal Crusaders
• Military orders
• Religious Wars
• Shepherds' Crusade
• Tenth Crusade
• Crusade cycle

[Sunting] Rujukan dan Bacaan Lanjutan

• Alfred J. Andrea, Encyclopedia of the Crusades. Greenwood Press, 2003.
• Jonathan Harris, Byzantium and the Crusades. London, 2003
• Carole Hillenbrand, The Crusades, Islamic Perspectives. New York, 2000.
• P.M. Holt, The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517. New York, 1986.
• Amin Maalouf, The Crusades Through Arab Eyes. 1983
• Thomas F. Madden, The New Concise History of the Crusades. Lanham, 2005.
• Hans E. Mayer, The Crusades. Oxford, 1965.
• Jonathan Riley-Smith, The First Crusade and the Idea of Crusading. Philadelphia, 1986.
• Jonathan Riley-Smith, The Oxford History of the Crusades. Oxford, 1995.
• Jonathan Riley-Smith, What were the Crusades?. San Francisco, 2002.
• Steven Runciman, A History of the Crusades, 3 vols., Cambridge, 1951-1954.

[Sunting] Nota

1. ↑ [1]
2. ↑ Sword and Buckler Fighting among the Lost Crusaders. Excerpts of Halliburton's observations

[Sunting] Pautan Lain

• Kenneth Setton, ed., A History of the Crusades. Madison, 1969-1989 (e-book online)
• Angeliki E. Laiou, The Crusades from the Perspective of Byzantium and the Muslim World, (e-book online), includes chapter on Historiography of the crusades.
• E.L. Skip Knox, The Crusades, a virtual college course through Boise State University.
• Thomas F. Madden, "The Real History of the Crusades", April 1, 2002.
• Paul Crawford, Crusades: A Guide to Online Resources, 1999.