Gross domestic product

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This article is  about GDP in the context of economics. For other meanings see GDP (disambiguation).
IMF 2005 figures of GDP of nominal compared to PPP.
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IMF 2005 figures of GDP of nominal compared to PPP.

A region's gross domestic product, or  GDP, is  one of  and  output">several measures of the size of its economy. The GDP of a country is  defined as the market value of all final goods and  services produced within a country in a given period of time. it  is also considered the sum of value added at every stage of production of all final goods and  services produced within a country in a given period of time. Until the 1980s the term GNP or  gross national product was used in the United States. The two terms GDP and  GNP are  almost identical. The most common approach to measuring and  understanding GDP is  the expenditure method:

GDP = consumption + investment + government spending + (exports − imports)

"Gross" means depreciation of capital stock is  not included. With depreciation, with net investment instead of gross investment, it  is the Net domestic product. Consumption and  investment in this equation are  the expenditure on final goods and  services. The exports minus imports part of the equation (often called cumulative exports) then adjusts this by subtracting the part of this expenditure not produced domestically (the imports), and  adding back in domestic production not consumed at home (the exports).

Economists (since Keynes) have  preferred to split the general consumption term into two parts; private consumption, and  public sector (or government) spending. Two advantages of dividing total consumption this way in theoretical macroeconomics are:

  • Private consumption is  a central concern of welfare economics. The private investment and  trade portions of the economy are  ultimately directed (in mainstream economic models) to increases in long-term private consumption.
  • If separated from endogenous private consumption, government consumption can be treated as exogenous, so that different government spending levels can be considered within a meaningful macroeconomic framework.


Contents

[edit] The components of GDP

Each of the variables C, I, G and  NX (where GDP = C + I + G + NX as above):

  • C is  private consumption (or Consumer expenditures) in the economy. This includes most personal expenditures of households such as food, rent, medical expenses and  so on but does not include new housing.
  • I is  defined as business investments in capital. Examples of investment by a business include construction of a new mine, purchase of software, or  purchase of machinery and  equipment for a factory. Spending by households on new houses is  also included in Investment. 'Investment' in GDP is  meant very specifically as non-financial product purchases. Buying financial products is  classed as saving in macroeconomics, as opposed to investment (which, in the GDP formula is  a form of spending). The distinction is  (in theory) clear: if money is  converted into goods or  services, without a repayment liability it  is investment. For example, if you buy a bond or  a share, the ownership of the money has only nominally changed hands, and  this transfer payment is  excluded from the GDP sum. Although such purchases would be called investments in normal speech, from the total-economy point of view, this is  simply swapping of deeds, and  not part of the real economy or  the GDP formula.
  • G is  the sum of government expenditures on final goods and  services. it  includes salaries of public servants, purchase of weapons for the military, and  any investment expenditure by a government. it  does not include any transfer payments, such as social security or  unemployment benefits. The relative size of government expenditure compared to GDP as a whole is  critical in the theory of crowding out, and  the Keynesian cross.
  • X is  gross export. GDP captures the amount a country produces, including goods and  services produced for overseas consumption, therefore exports are  added.
  • M is  gross import. Imports are  subtracted since imported goods will be included in the terms G, I, or  C, and  must be deducted to avoid counting foreign supply as domestic.
  • NX are  "net exports" in the economy: gross exports - gross imports. There is  a fixed relation: NX = X - M.

It is  important to understand the meaning of each variable precisely in order to:

[edit] Examples of GDP component variables

Examples of C, I, G, & NX: If you spend money to renovate your hotel so that occupancy rates increase, that is  private investment, but if you buy shares in a consortium to do the same thing it  is saving. The former is  included when measuring GDP (in I), the latter is  not. However, when the consortium conducted its own expenditure on renovation, that expenditure would be included in GDP.

If the hotel is  your private home your renovation spending would be measured as Consumption, but if a government agency is  converting the hotel into an  office for civil servants the renovation spending would be measured as part of public sector spending (G).

If the renovation involves the purchase of a chandelier from abroad, that spending would also be counted as an  increase in imports, so that NX would fall and  the total GDP is  unaffected by the purchase. (This highlights the fact that GDP is  intended to measure domestic production rather than total consumption or  spending. Spending is  really a convenient means of estimating production.)

If you are  paid to manufacture the chandelier to hang in a foreign hotel the situation would be reversed, and  the payment you receive would be counted in NX (positively, as an  export). Again, we see that GDP is  attempting to measure production through the means of expenditure; if the chandelier you produced had been bought domestically it  would have  been included in the GDP figures (in C or  I) when purchased by a consumer or  a business, but because it  was exported it  is necessary to 'correct' the amount consumed domestically to give the amount produced domestically. (As in Gross Domestic Product.).


[edit] The GDP income account

Another way of measuring GDP is  to measure the total income payable in the GDP income accounts. This should provide the same figure as the expenditure method described above.

The formula for GDP measured using the income approach, called GDP(I), is:

GDP = Compensation of employees + Gross operating surplus + Gross mixed income + Taxes less  subsidies on production and  imports
  • Compensation of employees (COE) measures the total remuneration to employees for work done. it  includes wages and  salaries, as well as employer contributions to social security and  other such programs.
  • Gross operating surplus (GOS) is  the surplus due to owners of incorporated businesses. Often called profits, although only a subset of total costs are  subtracted from gross output to calculate GOS.
  • Gross mixed income (GMI) is  the same measure as GOS, but for unincorporated businesses. This often includes most small businesses.

The sum of COE, GOS and  GMI is  called total factor income, and  measures the value of GDP at factor (basic) prices.The difference between basic prices and  final prices (those used in the expenditure calculation) is  the total taxes and  subsidies that the Government has levied or  paid on that production. So adding taxes less  subsidies on production and  imports converts GDP at factor cost to GDP(I).

Another formula can be written as this:

GDP = R + I + P + SA + W

R = rents
I = interests
P = profits
SA = statistical adjustments (corporate income taxes, dividends, undistributed corporate profits)
W = wages

[edit] Measurement

[edit] International standards

The international standard for measuring GDP is  contained in the book System of National Accounts (1993), which was prepared by representatives of the International Monetary Fund, European Union,  and  Development">Organisation for Economic Co-operation and  Development, United Nations and  World Bank. The publication is  normally referred to as SNA93, to distinguish it  from the previous edition published in 1968 (called SNA68).

SNA93 sets out a set of rules and  procedures for the measurement of national accounts. The standards are  designed to be flexible, to allow for differences in local statistical needs and  conditions.

[edit] National measurement

Within each country GDP is  normally measured by a national government statistical agency, as private sector organisations normally do not have  access to the information required (especially information on expenditure and  production by governments).

GDP can measure spending on all goods and  services. GDP can also measure all income earned.

[edit] Interest rates

Net interest expense is  a transfer payment in all sectors except the financial sector. Net interest expenses in the financial sector is  seen as production and  value added and  is added to GDP.

[edit] Cross-border comparison

The level of GDP in different countries may be compared by converting their value in national currency according to either

The relative ranking of countries may differ dramatically between the two approaches.

  • The current exchange rate method converts the value of goods and  services using global currency exchange rates. This can offer better indications of a country's international purchasing power and  relative economic strength. For instance, if 10% of GDP is  being spent on buying hi-tech foreign arms, the number of weapons purchased is  entirely governed by current exchange rates, since arms are  a traded product bought on the international market (there is  no meaningful 'local' price distinct from the international price for high technology goods).
  • The purchasing power parity method accounts for the relative effective domestic purchasing power of the average producer or  consumer within an  economy. This can be a better indicator of the living standards of less-developed countries because it  compensates for the weakness of local currencies in world markets. The PPP method of GDP conversion is  most relevant to non-traded goods and  services.

There is  a clear pattern of the purchasing power parity method decreasing the disparity in GDP between high and  low income (GDP) countries, as compared to the current exchange rate method. This finding is  called the Penn effect.

For more  information see measures of national income.

[ and  standard of living">edit] GDP and  standard of living

 are  data for the years 1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and  2003.)">World GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the industrial revolution. (Note the empty areas mean no data, not very low levels. There<a href= are  data for the years 1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and  2003.)" width="200" height="153" longdesc="../../../w/o/r/Image%7EWorld_GDP_Capita_1-2003_A.D.png_562a.html" />
Enlarge
World GDP per capita changed very little for most of human history before the industrial revolution. (Note the empty areas mean no data, not very low levels. There are  data for the years 1, 1000, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1820, 1900, and  2003.)

GDP per capita is  often used as an  indicator of standard of living in an  economy. While this approach has advantages, many criticisms of GDP focus on its use as an  indicator of standard of living.

The major advantages to using GDP per capita as an  indicator of standard of living are  that it  is measured frequently, widely and  consistently; frequently in that most countries provide information on GDP on a quarterly basis (which allows a user to spot trends more  quickly), widely in that some measure of GDP is  available for practically every country in the world (allowing crude comparisons between the standard of living in different countries), and  consistently in that the technical definitions used within GDP are  relatively consistent between countries, and  so there can be confidence that the same thing is  being measured in each country.

The major disadvantage of using GDP as an  indicator of standard of living is  that it  is not, strictly speaking, a measure of standard of living. GDP is  intended to be a measure of particular types of economic activity within a country. Nothing about the definition of GDP suggests that it  is necessarily a measure of standard of living. For instance, in an  extreme example, a country which exported 100 per cent of its production would still have  a high GDP, but a very poor standard of living.

The argument in favour of using GDP is  not that it  is a good indicator of standard of living, but rather that (all other things being equal) standard of living tends to increase when GDP per capita increases. This makes GDP a proxy for standard of living, rather than a direct measure of it. GDP per capita can also be seen as a proxy of labor productivity. As the productivity of the workers increases, employers must compete for them by paying higher wages. Conversely, if productivity is  low, then wages must be low or  the businesses will not be able to make a profit.

There are  a number of controversies about this use of GDP.

[ and  limitations">edit] Criticisms and  limitations

GDP is  widely used by economists to follow how the economy is  moving, as its variations are  relative quickly identified. However, its value as an  indicator for the standard of living is  considered to be limited. an  alternative for this purpose is  the United Nations' Human Development Index in which the GDP is  a contributing factor in its calculation. Criticisms of how the GDP is  used include:

  • GDP does not take into account the black market, where the money spent isn't registered, and  the non-monetary economy, where no money comes into play at all, resulting in inaccurate or  abnormally low GDP figures. For example, in countries with major business transactions occurring informally, portions of local economy are  not easily registered. Bartering may be more  prominent than the use of money, even extending to services (I helped you build your house ten years ago, so now you help me).
  • This mainstream economic analysis ignores the environment, subsistence production and  domestic work. The current system counts oil spills and  wars as contributors to economic growth, while child-rearing and  housekeeping are  deemed valueless. The work of New Zealand economist, Marilyn Waring, has highlighted that if a concerted attempt to factor in unpaid work were made, then it  would in part, undo the injustices of unpaid (and in some cases, slave) labour, and  also provide the political transparency and  accountability necessary for democracy. Also, when GDP is  used as a measure of success over time, the amount of housework that was done 50 years ago compared to the present time is  much greater. Thus, comparing GDP over time cannot take into account the changes in society and  lifestyle.
  • It ignores volunteer, unpaid work. For example, Linux contributes nothing to GDP, but it  was estimated that it  would have  cost more  than a billion US dollars for a commercial company to develop.
  • Very often different calculations of GDP are  confused among each other. For cross-border comparisons one should especially regard whether it  is calculated by purchasing power parity (PPP) method or  current exchange rate method.
  • GDP counts work that produces no net change or  that results from repairing harm. For example, rebuilding after a natural disaster or  war may produce a considerable amount of economic activity and  thus boost GDP, but it  would have  been far better if the disaster had never occurred in the first place. The economic value of health care is  another classic example - it  may raise GDP if many people are  sick and  they are  receiving expensive treatment, but it  is not a desirable situation. Alternative economic measures, such as the standard of living or  discretionary income per capita better measure the human utility of economic activity. See uneconomic growth.
  • Quality of life - human happiness - is  determined by many other things than physical goods and  services. Even the alternative economic measures of standard of living and  discretionary income do not take these factors into account.
  • As the single most important figure in statistics it  is subject to fraud, such as the usage of hedonic price indexing on official GDP numbers in the US, thereby creating investments out of nothing while statistically dampening inflation.[citation needed]
  • Cross border trade within companies distorts the GDP and  is done frequently to escape high taxation. Examples include the German Ebay that evades German tax by doing business in Switzerland, and  American companies that have  founded holdings in Ireland to "buy" their own products for cheap from their continental factories (without shipping) and  selling them for profit via Ireland - thereby reducing their taxes and  increasing Irish GDP.[citation needed]
  • People may buy cheap, low-durability goods over and  over again, or  they may buy high-durability goods less  often. it  is possible that the monetary value of the items sold in the first case is  higher than that in the second case, in which case a higher GDP is  simply the result of greater inefficiency and  waste. (This is  not always the case; durable goods are  often more  difficult to produce than flimsy goods, and  consumers have  a financial incentive to find the cheapest long-term option. With goods that are  undergoing rapid change, such as in fashion or  high technology, the short lifespan may increase customer satisfaction by allowing them to have  newer products.)
  • If a nation does not spend, but saves and  invests overseas, its GDP will be diminished in comparison to one that spends borrowed money; thus accumulated savings and  debt are  not taken into account so long as adequate financing continues.
  • GDP does not measure the sustainability of growth. A country may achieve a temporarily high GDP by over-exploiting natural resources or  by misallocating investment. For example, the large deposits of phosphates gave the people of Nauru one of the highest per capita incomes on earth, but since 1989 their standard of living has declined sharply as the supply has run out. Oil-rich states can sustain high GDPs without industrializing, but this high level would no longer be sustainable if the oil runs out. Economies experiencing an  economic bubble, such as a housing bubble or  stock bubble, or  a low private-saving rate tend to appear to grow faster due to higher consumption, mortgaging their futures for present growth. Economic growth at the expense of environmental degradation can end up costing dearly to clean up; GDP does not account for this.
  • As a measure of actual sale prices, GDP does not capture the economic surplus between the price paid and  subjective value received, and  can therefore underestimate aggregate utility.
  • The annual growth of real GDP is  adjusted by using the "GDP deflator", which tends to underestimate the objective differences in the quality of manufactured output over time. (The deflator is  explicitly based on subjective experience when measuring such things as the consumer benefit received from computer-power improvements since the early 1980s). Therefore the GDP figure may underestimate the degree to which improving technology and  quality-level are  increasing the real standard of living.
  • GDP does not take disparity in incomes between the rich and  poor into account. See income inequality metrics for discussion of a variety of complementary economic measures.

The limits of GDP (or GNP, a slightly different notion) can be summed up in the words of two critics. Robert Kennedy said[1]:

The gross national product includes air pollution and  advertising for cigarettes and  ambulances to clear our highways of carnage. it  counts special locks for our doors and  jails for the people who break them. GNP includes the destruction of the redwoods and  the death of Lake Superior. it  grows with the production of napalm, and  missiles and  nuclear warheads... it  does not allow for the health of our families, the quality of their education, or  the joy of their play. it  is indifferent to the decency of our factories and  the safety of our streets alike. it  does not include the beauty of our poetry or  the strength of our marriages, or  the intelligence of our public debate or  the integrity of our public officials. it  measures everything, in short, except that which makes life worthwhile.

The second critic, Simon Kuznets the inventor of the GDP, in his very first report to the US Congress in 1934 said[2]:

...the welfare of a nation can scarely be inferred from a measure of national income. If the GDP is  up, why is  America down? Distinctions must be kept in mind between quantity and  quality of growth, between costs and  returns, and  between the short and  long run. Goals for more  growth should specify more  growth of what and  for what.

Some economists have  attempted to create a replacement for GDP called the Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI), which attempts to address many of the above criticisms. Many nations calculate a national wealth, a sum of all assets in a nation, but this again  does not account for future obligations such as environmental degradation, asset bubbles, and  debt. Other nations such as Bhutan have  advocated gross national happiness as a standard of living. (Bhutan claims to be the world's happiest nation.)

[edit] Lists of countries by their GDP

[edit] See also

[edit] References

  1. ^ Measuring Progress: Annex 1-What's wrong with the GDP?, Friends of the Earth. March 13, 2003. [1]
  2. ^ Cobb, Clifford, Ted Halstead, and  Jonathan Rowe. pp. 16-17. ibid, p. 17

[edit] External links

[edit] Data

[ and  books">edit] Articles and  books

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