大麻

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作为药品的大麻（cannabis,marijuana）来自蔷薇目大麻科的草本植物，特别是雌性植物经干燥的花和毛状体。其主要有效化学成份为四氢大麻酚（简称THC）。THC在吸食或口服后有精神和医学的活性作用。人类吸食大麻的历史长达千餘年，20世纪在毒品和宗教方面的使用有增加倾向。

在20世纪初，拥有、使用和买卖大麻制品在全球很多地方成为非法。其后有些国家对其继续加强监管，有些国家则放松了管制，造成实际合法。至今，大麻在世界大多数地方属于非法。

目录 1 野生大麻 2 古代历史 3 宗教、灵学应用 4 医学应用 4.1 美国 5 新型的育种种植技术 6 制造方法 6.1 吸食 6.2 口服 6.3 气化 6.3.1 刀片加热 7 短期作用 7.1 活性成分、代谢及活性机制 7.2 效用 7.2.1 对认知的影响 7.2.2 对行为的影响 7.2.3 生理效用 7.3 致死剂量 8 使用大麻对健康的影响 9 合法性 9.1 最近历史 9.2 非罪化和合法化 10 参考资料 10.1 资料 10.2 有关文献

[编辑] 野生大麻

野生大麻，特别是寻常大麻（Cannabis Sativa L.ver Indica Lamarck) 在全球广泛存在，生长地区包括吉尔吉斯坦、阿富汗，中国部分地区、匈牙利、波兰、保加利亚、印度和尼泊尔。另有“印度大麻”（Cannabis indica）主要生长在阿富汗、美属维尔京群岛和摩洛哥。各地的野生印度大麻基因成分不同。例如在温暖地带，野生印度大麻能长到六米高，但较为寒冷的地方有时候只有30厘米高。几乎每朵苞片花都结有种子。野生寻常大麻花苞细长分散，类似圣诞树形状。野生印度大麻则多密集枝条，花苞粗壮，结子较少。^[1] 在很多地方，野生大麻因为政府清除和城市化，数量受到威胁。

[编辑] 古代历史

人类吸食大麻的最早证据可以追溯到新石器时代。 在今天的罗马尼亚境内一个古代墓地发掘出来的宗教用炭炉内有烧焦的大麻种子。^[2]。

历史上使用大麻的以古代印度最为著名。大麻在梵文 里称为ganjika( 现代印度语言称作-{ganja}-)^[3]。印度传说中的毁灭之神湿婆教信徒要崇拜这种植物。古代《吠陀经》里传说的神圣致幻药物soma，有时也和大麻有关（soma一说是其他植物、菌类等）。

古代世界的赛西亚人和色雷斯人同样知道大麻。色雷斯人的巫师(kapnobatai，意为云上行者)通过燃烧大麻的花来达到灵魂出窍状态。人们猜测源于色雷斯的狄俄尼索斯狂欢仪式中也使用了吸食大麻。

[编辑] 宗教、灵学应用

大麻有在宗教、灵学的悠久应用历史。特别是在印度，几个世纪来为游荡的圣人们（sadhu）所使用。在使用大麻方面更有名的是牙买加的拉斯特法理教（Rastafari）。另有历史学家怀疑：古代犹太人、早期基督徒、早期穆斯林苏菲派都使用过大麻。另外有一个武士宗教派别“Hashshashin”其名来自大麻树脂（Hashish）。

除此以外另有很多人使用大麻是出于与具体宗教无关的灵学需要。这类使用在全球很多地方是被禁止的精神；但越禁止越有人用，如歌手巴布·馬利所称：the more man smoke herb, the more Babylon fall^[4])。

[编辑] 医学应用

医学上，大麻经常被用来辅助某些晚期绝症（癌症、艾滋病）的治疗，用来增进食欲、减轻疼痛，可用来缓解青光眼和癫痫、偏头痛等神经症状，以及两极情绪不稳， 可以减轻化疗病人的恶心症状。虽然医用大麻在政治方面尚有争议，医生们经常非正式地向病人推荐使用。一类人工合成的大麻有效成分THC（称为Dronabinol或Marinol）在很多国家是公开的处方药。THC 还有减少动脉阻塞的效用^[5]。一种用大麻提取物制造的舌下喷剂Sativex在加拿大被获准用来治疗多发性硬化症^[6]，并可以作为处方药合法进口到英国和西班牙^[7]。

[编辑] 美国

美国目前有11个州允许为了医疗目的拥有和使用大麻^[8]。然而，美国联邦最高法院在Gonzales v. Raich一案的判决中，认为《联邦列管物质法案》(Controlled Substances Act)中包括大麻是符合宪法的，因而非医疗研究人员占有大麻产品属于违反联邦法律。以前的United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative判决也是一样，法庭以8-0认定医用大麻不能算作特例，违反1类管制药品的规定^[9] 这两个决定导致联邦法律和各州法律的不一致^[10]。

[编辑] 新型的育种种植技术

Advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the diversity and potency of cannabis strains since 1970, and these strains are now widely smoked all over the world. These advances are known as the sinsemilla techniques of production; sinsemilla, Spanish for without seed, are the dried, seedless female flowers of 大麻 plants which have been grown in the absence of males to ensure no pollination takes place. Because THC potency and production drops off once pollination takes place, various techniques such as seed banks, hydroponics, cloning, lighting techniques, and the sea of green method have been utilized, in part as a response to prohibition enforcement efforts which have made outdoor cultivation more risky; thus, efficient indoor cultivation has become more common. These same advances have led to fewer seeds being present in 大麻 currently than were present 20 years ago.

The increases in potency—and ramifications thereof—have been exaggerated by many opponents of 大麻 use both in and out of government. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experience with 大麻 when speaking to their children, on the premise that pot today is significantly stronger and thus more dangerous than that which they themselves might have smoked in the past.^[11] In a general pattern of proposing reverses in cannabis rescheduling, the UK government is considering scheduling stronger 大麻 (skunk, in local parlance) as a separate, more restricted substance.

Many 大麻 proponents disagree vehemently, reasoning that as one must smoke less 大麻 to achieve the same effect, it actually is safer and less potentially carcinogenic in the long run than that which was smoked in earlier times.

[编辑] 制造方法

大麻 is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

• Marijuana or buds, the resin gland-rich flowering tops of female plants.
  • Sinsemilla or sensemillia, flowering tops which are free of seeds as a result of being grown in a pollen-free environment. Since no plant energy can go into seed formation, this version is higher in psychoactive components.
• Kief or kif, a powder containing the resin glands (glandular trichomes, often incorrectly called "crystals" or "pollen"). It is produced by sifting marijuana and leaves.
• Hashish, a concentrated resin made from pressing kif into blocks.
• Charas, produced by hand-rubbing the resin from the resin gland-rich parts of the plant. Often thin dark rectangular pieces.
• Bhang, prepared by the wet grinding of the leaves of the plant and used as a drink.
• Hash oil, resulting from extraction or distillation of THC-rich parts of the plant.
• Residue, when smoked through a pipe all of the above will cause black goo to create a film on the sides or collect in certain nooks depending on its shape. This can be collected and resmoked.
• Minimally potent leaves and detritus, called shake, brush, bush or leaf.

There are also three species of 大麻. These include Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica, and Cannabis ruderalis, the last containing much less THC and generally not used as a psychoactive substance.

[编辑] 吸食

吸食大麻有數種方法。最受歡迎的幾種包含了大麻捲菸，the bong, the pipe通常稱為 "bowl" 或 "piece", the shotgun, and the one-hitter.以上這些有時候在一個密閉的小空間吸食，如車內，這個小空間可以留住煙，如此一來每次呼吸都可以吸入這些煙霧。這樣的抽法可以說是 "hotboxing"，"fishbowling"，"clam-baking" 或 "green-housing"。澳洲稱在車內這種密閉小空間或是在毯子裡抽菸的行為是在 "Dutch Oven" 裡抽菸。

製造一個菸捲時, 大麻被捲入菸捲當中, 使用 捲菸紙。牛皮紙，報紙還有其他各種紙類都可以用來捲菸，但是這些紙通常含有有害的化學物質。 大麻的 雪茄, 或 blunts, 也可以使用捲菸器或者是標準的雪茄製造出來.

Bong 是一個水管狀的管子，經過這個管子的大麻煙會被過濾。Bong 有許多不同的變化，包括頂部是圓錐體，底部是穿孔或是割開的水瓶所組成的 gravity bong。這種抽大麻的方法是最有效率的抽法之ㄧ，因為汽化器（carburetor）和 chamber 會減少煙的浪費。

管子（pipes）通常是用口吹玻璃（blown glass），木材或不具反應性的金屬製成的。玻璃管通常有一個汽化器，較口語的說法是carb, rush, choke, shotgun,或 shooter（英式用法）。 Some users also prefer vertically held pipes, or improvised pipes made from aluminum foil, small plumbing fittings, soda cans, or crisp fruits or vegetables.

A shotgun involves two people. One person takes a hit then puts the joint or blunt ember first into his mouth. Another person then places his mouth over the front end, and first person exhales through the joint, blowing both his smoke and the joint’s smoke into the other person’s mouth. More efficient variations of shotgunning involve both members curling their hands to form a 'shotgun' chamber. Simultaneous exhaling by one member and inhaling by the other member will effectively transfer smoke between the two people. Many consider this to be a very intimate practice.

One-hitter 是看起來像雪茄的裝置。 Seedless, stemless 大麻 buds are loaded into a compartment in a container known as a dugout. A hitter, contained in another compartment, is loaded and lit. This is repeated for each hit. This method is also efficient in titrating the exact dose desired. Another way is to put the 大麻 into a pen cap with foil lining the cap.

[编辑] 口服

大麻也可以經由和乙醇或脂類混合後口服。 With this method, some claim that more 大麻 must be used, though considering that the effects of oral consumption are different from those of inhalation, others may claim that less is required. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be perceived as more physical rather than mental, though there are claims to the contrary. A dose of oral 大麻 is often considered to give a stronger experience than the equivalent dose of smoked 大麻. A common belief holds that while smoked 大麻 has a large volume exhaled, or simply burned, without consumption, ingested 大麻 has 100% consumption, an assertion which cannot be confirmed without objective analysis. It is thought that the active component of 大麻, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC in the liver.^[12] Titration is much more complex than through inhalation. Common preparations involve blending with butter, to create cannabutter that is used in preparing brownies, fudge, cookies or ganja goo balls or "space cakes." Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India.

As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before taking the drug to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will absorb the drug faster so it 'hits' stronger. However, some people do eat before consuming the drug because eating it on an empty stomach makes them feel sick. Still, time to effect onset is an hour or sometimes more, as opposed to smoking, where effects can be almost immediate.

大麻 can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only a little water soluble with a solubility of only a few grams per litre, but enough to make a tea effective. Water-based infusion is generally considered to be inefficient.

The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Many countries, including the United States, make the possession of viable 大麻 seeds illegal.^[13].

[编辑] 气化

Usually with a vaporizer, 大麻 can be heated to a temperature of about 365 °F (185 °C), at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many (or any) toxic chemicals depending on the quality of the vaporizer. Scientific studies by MAPS/NORML have yielded varied results on the effectiveness of vaporizing as a method of 大麻 consumption. One particular study by MAPS/NORML found 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor.^[14] However, an older study by MAPS/NORML showed minimal reduction of toxins.^[15] Some users claim to experience subtly different effects when using 大麻 in this way, and others claim to experience a far more intense effect from a smaller amount of 大麻. In addition, users note an improved ability to distinguish subtle characteristics of flavor and aroma, in absence of lighter gas fumes or burnt matter.

[编辑] 刀片加热

Hot-knifing, blasting or doing blades is a process in which the tips of two knives are heated to a very high temperature, often by inserting them into the heating elements of a stove. The 大麻 is then pressed between the heated knife-tips, rapidly combusting it. The vaporized 大麻 is often funneled into the mouth of the smoker through the use of a plastic bottle-top, empty pen, or other hollow tube or funnel. In New Zealand, this is also known as "spots". A modified method of "spotting", uses knife blades heated to a much lower temperature, hot enough to vaporise the active ingredients, leaving the organic material scorched, rather than burned, thus removing potential harmful consequenses of the smoke itself.

[编辑] 短期作用

The nature and intensity of the immediate effects of 大麻 consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and the environment of consumption. This is sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same 大麻 either in a different frame of mind (set) or in a different location (setting) can alter the effects or perception of the effects by the individual. Effects of 大麻 consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that the Cannabis sativa species tends to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while Cannabis indica tends to produce more of the physical effects.

[编辑] 活性成分、代谢及活性机制

Of the approximately 400 different chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). THC can degrade to other cannabinoids, such as cannabidiol or cannabinol, which can make one feel sleepy and disoriented. Different cannabis products have different ratios of these and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality of the "high" will vary.

THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. Mild allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population.

A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods of time does not conclusively increase THC's effects.^[16].

[编辑] 效用

Cannabis has a broad spectrum of possible cognitive, behavioral, and physiological effects, the occurrence of which vary from user to user. Some of these are the intended effect desired by users, some may be considered desirable depending on the situation, and others are generally considered undesirable. Users of cannabis report that these kinds of effects are more often produced by the sativa species of Cannabis.

Cannabis also has effects that are predominantly physical or sensory, widely believed to be more common with the indica species.

[编辑] 对认知的影响

• Varying amounts of paranoia and anxiety in some users^[17]
• 失去方向感且失去時間感受^[18]
• 大部分的使用者會有短暫的失憶現象。
• 有些使用者在高剂量时产生声音或视觉幻觉。
• 产生好奇感。
• Increased awareness of sensation, including visual stimulation, music, taste, and sexual pleasure
• Increased mental activity, like metacognition and introspective or meditative states of mind
• Relaxation or stress reduction
• Mild entheogenesis (e.g. per Rastafarian users, more "Jah-Vibrations")

[编辑] 对行为的影响

• Paramnesia, repetitiveness and ambiguation
• Initial wakefulness followed by drowsiness and lassitude ("burnt out")
• Gain or loss of some inhibitions
• Varying degree of euphoria, ranging from feelings of general well-being to lengthy pointless laughter

[编辑] 生理效用

• 中等剂量时有止呕作用^[19]
• 加强很多其他药品，如酒精、摇头丸、烟草、海洛因、可卡因等的效用^[19]
• 降低眼压，可用来治疗青光眼，缓解头痛等。
• 放松血管^[20]，导致:
  • 增加心律和血流量
  • 眼部充血或干燥
• 站立血压降低，坐姿血压升高
• 增加食欲
• 暂时、轻微的口腔干燥
• 松弛肺部气泡（alveoli），导致深度呼吸，加强咳嗽
• 困觉 (可用来治疗失眠和缺乏睡眠)

[编辑] 致死剂量

一般认为吸食大麻很难致死。按照Merck Index第12版的小鼠半数致死量（LD50）推算，体重75公斤的人需要同时吸食21克高效大麻，吸收所有的THC才可达到这个剂量。口服的话，需要量增加到大约一磅（454克）。只有静脉注射才可能理论上致死，虽然至今没有人采用。 （在2004年，英国有一起被验尸官定为“大麻过量致死”的死亡，但该结论还在争议之中。）

[编辑] 使用大麻对健康的影响

2006年12月10日，英國慈善團體「年輕頭腦」（YoungMinds）發表的研究報告顯示：經常吸食大麻的年輕人罹患精神病的機率，是不抽大麻的年輕人的兩倍。 這有一些對於長期使用大麻對於人類影響的決定性科學證據。^[21] 許多試圖證明大麻的影響的早期發現大多為不可靠的，並且一般而言被視為是junk science, 有錯誤的研究，其中帶有嚴重的偏見與微弱的方法論。 最具意義的干擾因子為使用其他的毒品，包括酒精與香菸，並以大麻作為對照組。 When subjects using only cannabis were combined in the same sample with subjects using other drugs as well, researchers could not reach a conclusion as to whether their findings were caused by cannabis, other drugs or the interaction between them. In addition, research using cannabis is heavily restricted in many countries, making it difficult to get new studies funded or approved. Since there are so many different compounds in cannabis, it is difficult to predict or accurately measure its effects.

Some conclusions established with some degree of certainty, however, are that cannabis is less likely to cause emphysema or cancer than tobacco^[22]; that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among certain genetically predisposed individuals has an elevated correlation with certain mental illness outcomes, ranging from momentary minor psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia ^[23][24]; that cannabis use is generally higher among schizophrenics, but causality has not been established^[25][26]; that it temporarily impairs motor skills; that it is unlikely to cause birth defects or developmental delays in the children of users,^[27][28] and in a study done by the University of California Los Angeles in 2006, that even heavy marijuana smokers do not increase their risk for lung cancer.^[29]

[编辑] 合法性

二十世纪以来, 绝大多数国家颁布法律来禁止种植,使用,拥有或携带大麻. Naturally, these laws impact adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed, and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. However, this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the "legal amount" of marijuana, since buying or growing marijuana is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. However, simple possession can carry long jail sentences in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

[编辑] 最近历史

Under the name cannabis, 19th century medical practitioners sold the drug, (usually as a tincture) popularizing the word amongst English-speakers. It was rumoured to have been used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains as her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds, was a staunch supporter of the benefits of cannabis.^[30] Cannabis was also openly available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century, its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs like aspirin took over its use as a pain reliever.

The name marijuana (Mexican Spanish marihuana, mariguana) is associated almost exclusively with the plant's psychoactive use. The term is now well known in English largely due to the efforts of American drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, who deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal. (see 1937 Marijuana Tax Act)

Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a prominent part of 1960s counterculture.

[编辑] 非罪化和合法化

In recent decades, a movement to 非罪化 cannabis has arisen in several countries. This movement seeks to make simple possession of cannabis punishable by only confiscation or a fine, rather than prison. In the past several years, the movement has started to have some successes. These include Denver, Colorado legalizing possession of up to an ounce of cannabis^[31], a broad coalition of political parties in Amsterdam, Netherlands unveiling a pilot program to allow farmers to legally grow it,^[32] and Massachusetts voting in favor of a bill to decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of marijuana^[33]. In 2001 in the United Kingdom, it was announced that cannabis would become a Class C drug, rather than a Class B, effectively eliminating the threat of arrest for possession; this change took effect in 2004. ^[34] The Government of Mexico voted to legalize the possession of cannabis under 5 grams on April 28, 2006年. ^[35] However, as of May 3, 2006年, Mexican President Vicente Fox has said that he will not sign this proposed law until Congress removes the parts that would decriminalize the possession of small quantities of drugs^[36] and vetoed the bill on May 4, 2006,^[37] sparking broad controversy over the bill.^[38][39][40]

[编辑] 参考资料

[编辑] 资料

[编辑] 有关文献

• Howard Markel - For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away - New York Times - 2002-10-27
• Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt (2002). "Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study". British Medical Journal 325: 1212 – 1213.

• Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig (2005). "Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction". Biol Psychiatry 25: 1117 – 1127.

• Henderson Mark - One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis - The Times - 2005-04-12
• Bruce Mirken and Mitch Earleywine: Psychosis, Hype And Baloney - AlterNet - 2005-03-07
• James Huff and Po Chan (October 2000). "Antitumor Effects of THC". Environmental Health Perspectives 108(10): Correspondence. PMID 11097557.

• "Knife" Sotelo: Yes I Cannabis - Promotional Sales Books, LLC - April 20, 2006
• Cannabis: A History (2005). Martin Booth - ISBN: 0312322208