Kereta api Maglev

The Inductrack and the Superconducting EDS are only levitation technologies. In both cases, vehicles need some other technology for propulsion. A Jet engine and a linear motor are being considered, such as the linear motor used for propulsion in the Japanese Superconducting EDS MLX01 maglev.

The German Transrapid electromagnetic maglev uses a linear motor for both levitation and propulsion.

Neither Inductrack nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, although Inductrack provides levitation down to a much lower speed. Wheels are required for both systems. EMS systems are wheel-less.

The German Transrapid, Japanese HSST (Linimo), and Korean Rotem maglevs levitate at a standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to 10 km/h speed, using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.

[Sunting] Electromagnetic suspension

Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) in maglev trains is a system whereby a feedback controlled powered electromagnet maintains a train at a constant distance from a track. It is distinguished from electrodynamic suspension (EDS).

[Sunting] Electrodynamic suspension

Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) is one method that can be used for maglev trains. Superconductor electromagnets on the train generate a magnetic field. Propulsion coils on the guideway are used to exert a force on these magnets, and make the train move forwards.

The propulsion coils exert a force on the train in the same way that an electric motor works: An alternating current flowing through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the track. The magnets on the train line up with this field, and the train moves.

As the train moves forward, it induces a current in another set of coils which is responsible for guidance and levitation of the train. They have a figure eight shape, and the current flowing through them induces magnetic poles in both the top and bottom halves. These poles ensure that the magnets on the train are repelled by the bottom half, and attracted by the top half, resulting in the train levitating.

At slow speeds however, the current induced in these coils or flux is not large enough to support the weight of the train. For this reason the train is fitted with a retractable landing gear to support the train until it "takes off".

[Sunting] Inductrack

Rencana utama: Inductrack

A newer, perhaps less-expensive, system is called "Inductrack". The technique has a load-carrying ability related to the speed of the vehicle, because it depends on currents induced in a passive electromagnetic array by permanent magnets. In the prototype, the permanent magnets are in a cart; horizontally to provide lift, and vertically to provide stability. The array of wire loops is in the track. The magnets and cart are unpowered, except by the speed of the cart. Inductrack was originally developed as a magnetic motor and bearing for a flywheel to store power. With only slight design changes, the bearings were unrolled into a linear track. Inductrack was developed by physicist Richard Post at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

Inductrack uses Halbach arrays for stabilization. Halbach arrays are arrangements of permanent magnets that stabilize moving loops of wire without electronic stabilization. Halbach arrays were originally developed for beam guidance of particle accelerators. They also have a magnetic field on the track side only, thus reducing any potential effects on the passengers.

[Sunting] Lift and propulsion

Japan and Germany are active in maglev research, producing several different approaches and designs. In one design, the train can be levitated by the repulsive force of like poles or the attractive force of opposite poles of magnets. The train can be propelled by a linear motor on the track or on the train, or both. Massive electrical induction coils are placed along the track in order to produce the magnetic field necessary to propel the train.

[Sunting] Stability

Static magnetic bearings using only electromagnets and permagnets are unstable because of Earnshaw's theorem.

The 3 types of maglev reflect the 3 known ways of by-passing Earnshaw's theorem:

• (EDS) Instead of electromagnets and permagnets, use diamagnetic or superconducting magnets.
• (EMS) Use electromagnets with active electronic stabilization. Constantly measure the bearing distance, and adjust the electromagnet current accordingly.
• (Inductrack) Earnshaw's theorem doesn't apply to moving systems.

[Sunting] Magnet weight

Maklumat lanjut: Transport applications of maglev

The weight of the large electromagnet is a major design issue. A very strong magnetic field is required to levitate a massive train, so conventional maglev research is using superconductor research for an efficient electromagnet.

[Sunting] Alleged theft of maglev technology

In a serious incident in December 2004, Chinese engineers entered into the Transrapid maintenance room in the middle of the night in Shanghai, took measurements of the train, and even filmed the whole incident, according to the German Economic Weekly, Wirtschaftswoche. Wirtschaftswoche further speculated that it was a case of Transrapid technology theft. Furthering the Transrapid Consortium's unease, the Chengdu Aircraft Industrial Group has announced it has developed its own high speed maglev technology, which it claims to be superior to that of Transrapid's, less than two years after the break-in. Trials are supposed to begin this year of the new Chinese maglev technology in Shanghai. According to the Spiegel Online however, the Chengdu Aircraft Industrial Group has been tinkering with maglev technology since 1986, so it is unknown if the maglev train about to run test trials in Shanghai is the result of technology theft or actual domestic research culminating in the creation of this new maglev train system or a combination of both.

However, the Changchun Railway Vehicles company announced in 2001, before the Transrapid maglev was in operation in Shanghai, that it was developing a competing maglev system and project in northeastern China. It is one of a few Chinese companies now extensively and independently researching maglev technology.

Recently new announcements by Chinese officials planning on cutting maglev rail costs by a third have stirred some strong comments by various German officials and more diplomatic statements of concern from Transrapid officials. The Deutsche Welle reports that the China Daily quoted the State Council encouraging engineers to "learn and absorb foreign advanced technologies while making further innovations." *[1]

Bavarian Premier Edmund Stoiber commented, "What's happening in China smells suspiciously like technology theft," shortly after learning of the new Chinese plans to build their own maglev train. The Premier suggested that the G8 take up the issue of Chinese intellectual property rights violations at their next meeting.

The China Aviation Industry Corporation said in their defense that the new "Zhui Feng" maglev train is not based or dependent on foreign technology. They claim it is not only a much lighter train, but also has a much more advanced design.

[Sunting] Noise

In April 2004, a peer-reviewed article in the Journal of the Acoustical Society of America stated that the noise from maglev trains is considerably more disturbing than standard steel on steel intercity train noise and is approximately as disturbing as road traffic. The difference between equal disturbance levels of maglev and traditional trains was 5dB. This counters claims from maglev proponents that maglev trains have acoustic benefits over standard trains. [2] Maglev is characterized by high noise levels and brief duration, which may startle those underneath the track. The type of noise a maglev emits is similar to a jet engine due to its speed and shape. [3]

[Sunting] Existing maglev systems

JR-Maglev at Yamanashi

[Sunting] Birmingham 1984–1995

The world's first commercial automated system was a low-speed maglev shuttle that ran from the airport terminal of Birmingham International Airport (UK) to the nearby Birmingham International railway station from 1984 to 1995. The length of the track was 600 m, and trains "flew" at an altitude of 15 mm. It was in operation for nearly eleven years, but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems made it unreliable in its later years and it has now been replaced with a cable-drawn system.

[Sunting] Berlin 1989–1991

Rencana utama: M-Bahn

In West Berlin, the M-Bahn was built in the late 1980s. It was a driverless maglev system with a 1.6 km track connecting three stations. Testing in passenger traffic started in August 1989, and regular operation started in July 1991. Although the line largely followed a new elevated alignment, it terminated at the U-Bahn station Gleisdreieck, where it took over a platform that was then no longer in use; it was from a line that formerly ran to East Berlin. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, plans were set in motion to reconnect this line (today's U2). Deconstruction of the M-Bahn line began only two months after regular service began and was completed in February 1992.

[Sunting] Emsland, Germany

Templat:Current-section Transrapid, a German maglev company, has a test track in Emsland with a total length of 31.5 km. On 22 September 2006 a train on this test track collided with a maintenance vehicle during a test run in Lathen (Lower Saxony / north-western Germany). The train was carrying 33 passengers, including visitors to the test site [4], 11 people from the German energy company RWE [5] and a few Transrapid employees. Twenty-three people were killed in the accident. Ten others survived with serious injuries [6].

Wikinews mempunyai berita yang berkaitan dengan: Transrapid collision in Germany kills 23.

Rudolf Schwarz, a spokesman for the company which operates the track (IABG), said the accident was the result of human error, implying no fundamental safety deficiency in maglev technology. According to a former spokesman for Transrapid, this is the first ever fatal maglev accident [7].

[Sunting] JR-Maglev

Rencana utama: JR-Maglev

Japan has a test track in Yamanashi prefecture where test trains JR-Maglev MLX01 have reached 581 km/h (361 mph), faster than wheeled trains. These trains use superconducting magnets which allow for a larger gap, and repulsive-type "Electro-Dynamic Suspension" (EDS). In comparison Transrapid uses conventional electromagnets and attractive-type "Electro-Magnetic Suspension" (EMS). These "Superconducting Maglev Shinkansen", developed by the Central Japan Railway Co. ("JR Central") and Kawasaki Heavy Industries, are currently the fastest trains in the world, achieving a record speed of 581 km/h on December 2, 2003.

[Sunting] Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line)

Linimo train approaching Banpaku Kinen Koen, towards Fujigaoka Station

Rencana utama: Linimo

The world's first commercial automated "Urban Maglev" system commenced operation in March 2005 in Aichi, Japan. This is the nine-station 8.9 km long Tobu-kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the Linimo. The line has a minimum operating radius of 75 m and a maximum gradient of 6%. The linear-motor magnetic-levitated train has a top speed of 100 km/h. The line serves the local community as well as the Expo 2005 fair site. The trains were designed by the Chubu HSST Development Corporation, which also operates a test track in Nagoya. Urban-type maglevs patterned after the HSST have been constructed and demonstrated in Korea, and a Korean commercial version Rotem is now under construction in Daejeon and projected to go into operation by April of 2007.

[Sunting] FTA's UMTD program

In the US, the Federal Transit Administration (FTA) Urban Maglev Technology Demonstration program has funded the design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstration projects. It has assessed HSST for the Maryland Department of Transportation and maglev technology for the Colorado Department of Transportation. The FTA has also funded work by General Atomics at California University of Pennsylvania to demonstrate new maglev designs, the MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconducting EDS system. Other US urban maglev demonstration projects of note are the LEVX in Washington State and the Massachusetts-based Magplane.

[Sunting] Southwest Jiaotong University, China

On December 31, 2000, the first crewed high-temperature superconducting maglev was tested successfully at Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China. This system is based on the principle that bulk high-temperature superconductors can be levitated or suspended stably above or below a permanent magnet. The load was over 530 kg and the levitation gap over 20 mm. The system uses liquid nitrogen, which is very cheap, to cool the superconductor.

[Sunting] The first, the German patent (1941)

The first patent for a magnetic levitation train propelled by linear motors was German Patent 707032, issued in June 1941.

[Sunting] Economics

High-speed maglevs can be expensive to build, but are comparable to the capital costs of building a traditional high-speed rail system from scratch, a highway system or a system of airports. More importantly, maglevs are significantly less expensive to operate and maintain than traditional high-speed trains, planes or intercity buses. The data coming out of the Shanghai maglev demonstration project indicates that O&M costs are quite low, and are indeed covered by the current relatively low volume of 7,000 passengers per day. Passenger volumes on this Pudong International Airport line is expected to rise dramatically once the line is extended from Longyang Road metro station all the way to Shanghai's downtown train depot.

The Shanghai maglev cost US$1.2 billion to build. At US$6 per passenger and 20,000 passengers per day, it would take over 27 years just to repay the capital costs (including cost of financing), not accounting for track maintenance, salaries and electricity (see solar power). This computes to US$60 million per mile. The total $1.2 billion includes infrastructure capital costs such as manufacturing and construction facilities, and operational training, as part of the calculated per-mile cost of the short track. It is predicted that the per-mile costs of the extension to Hangzhou will be significantly lower.

The proposed Chuo Shinkansen line is estimated to cost approximately US$82 billion to build.

However, when one considers the cost of airport construction (e.g., Hong Kong Airport cost US$20 billion to build in 1998) and eight-lane Interstate highway systems that cost around US$50 million per mile, it becomes immediately apparent that maglev's costs are competitive, especially considering that they can handle much higher volumes of passengers per hour than airports or eight-lane highways and do it without introducing any air pollution along the right of way.

The only low-speed maglev (100 km/h) currently operational, the Japanese Linimo HSST, cost approximately US$100 million/km to build^[1]. Besides offering improved O&M costs over other transit systems, these low-speed maglevs provide ultra-high levels of operational reliability and introduce zero noise or air pollution into dense urban settings.

As maglev systems are deployed around the world, experts expect construction costs to drop as new construction methods are perfected.

[Sunting] Under construction

[Sunting] Old Dominion University

A track of less than a mile in length has been constructed at Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia. The system is not operational, but research is currently ongoing to resolve some stability issues with the system. This system uses a "smart train, dumb track" that involves most of the sensors, magnets, and computation occurring on the train rather than the track. This system will cost less to build per mile than existing systems. The same principle is involved in the construction of a second prototype system in Powder Springs, Georgia, by American Maglev Technology, Inc., set for deployment in Fall 2006.

[Sunting] Proposals

[Sunting] Europe

[Sunting] Munich

A Transrapid connection of the Bavarian capital Munich to its international airport (37 km) is now being planned. It would reduce the current connection time via S-Bahn (German city railroad system) from about 40 minutes to 10 minutes.

[Sunting] Berlin – Hamburg

A 292 km Transrapid line linking Berlin to Hamburg. It has been deleted due to lack of funds. Instead the existing railway line has been upgraded to 230 km/h for ICE train sets.

[Sunting] London – Edinburgh and/or Glasgow

A maglev line has recently been proposed in the United Kingdom from London to Edinburgh and/or Glasgow with several route options through the Midlands, Northwest and Northeast, and is reported to be under favourable consideration by the government. A further high speed link is also being investigated as an option between Glasgow to Edinburgh though there is no settled technology for this concept yet, ie (Maglev/Hi Speed Electric etc) [8] [9] [10]

[Sunting] Asia

[Sunting] Tokyo – Osaka

If a proposed Chuo Shinkansen is built, connecting Tokyo to Osaka by maglev, the existing test track in Yamanashi prefecture would be part of the line.

[Sunting] Shanghai – Hangzhou

China has decided to build a second Transrapid maglev rail with a length of 160 km from Shanghai to Hangzhou (Shanghai-Hangzhou maglev line). Talks with Germany and Transrapid Konsortium about the details of the construction contracts have started. On March 7 2006, the Chinese Minister of Transportation was quoted by several Chinese and Western newspapers as saying the line was approved. Construction will probably start towards the end of 2006 and is scheduled to be completed in time for the 2010 Shanghai Expo, becoming the first inter-city Maglev rail line in commercial service in the world. The line will be an extension of the Shanghai airport Maglev line.

[Sunting] Johor, Malaysia

Malaysia has decided to use Mag-lev technology to link important landmarks across the city. This will be a boost to business to compete against the neighbouring city, Singapore.

[Sunting] USA

[Sunting] Southern California, Los Angeles – Las Vegas

Rencana utama: California-Nevada Interstate Maglev

High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern California and Las Vegas are also being studied via the California-Nevada Interstate Maglev Project. This plan was originally supposed to be part of a I-5 or I-15 expansion plan, but the federal government has ruled it must be separated from interstate work projects.

Since the federal government decision, private groups from Nevada have proposed a line running from Las Vegas to Los Angeles with stops in Primm, Nevada; Baker, California; and points throughout Riverside County into Los Angeles.

Southern California politicians have not been receptive to these proposals, many are concerned that a high speed rail line out of state would drive out dollars that would be spent in state "on a rail" to Nevada.

[Sunting] Baltimore – Washington, D.C.

Rencana utama: Baltimore-Washington D.C. Maglev

A 64 km project linking Camden Yards in Baltimore and Baltimore-Washington International (BWI) Airport to Union Station in Washington, D.C. It is in demand for the area due to its current traffic/congestion problems. The project is in contention for the same federal grant as the Pittsburgh project.

[Sunting] Florida High Speed Rail

The history of High Speed Rail in Florida started in 1976 with feasibility study for service between Daytona Beach and St. Petersburg. In November of 2000, the Florida voters approved an amendment to the State constitution mandating the construction of a High Speed Transportation system to link the five largest urban areas in Florida. Construction was mandated to begin by November 1, 2003.

In October 2002, the Authority issued a Request for Proposal to Design, Build, Operate, Maintain and Finance (DBOM&F) the first phase of the project from Tampa to Orlando. Based on Fluor Bombardier (FB) proposal first and the Global Rail Consortium (GRC) proposal, the cost of initial phase is approximately $2.4 billion.

In early 2004, Governor Jeb Bush endorsed an effort to repeal the 2000 amendment that mandated the construction of the High Speed Rail System which was approved by the voters, resulting in removal of the constitutional mandate.

The Florida High Speed Rail Authority Act is still remains in effect pending any action from the Florida Legislature. In fiscal year 2004/05, no State funds were appropriated, and the Authority has operated on surplus funds from previous years.

[Sunting] Honolulu

The city of Honolulu, Hawaii is said to be planning a Linimo class urban Maglev for its main mass transit train.

[Sunting] San Diego

San Diego is considering a high-speed maglev line to serve as a passenger transportation node to remote airport sites under consideration. The cost estimate is approximately $10 billion U.S. for the 120-150 km (80-100 mile) run, not including the cost of construction of the airport. [11]

[Sunting] Pittsburgh

A 75 km project linking Pittsburgh International Airport to downtown Pittsburgh to Monroeville, PA and ending in Greensburg, PA. The Pittsburgh route is favored by some on the basis that it would test the durability and endurance of the maglev technology over more hilly terrain and more variable winter weather conditions. The project is in contention for the same federal grant as the Baltimore-Washington, D.C. project.

[Sunting] The Cascadia MagLev

Long-proposed but not on any official drawing boards would be a MagLev line along the Interstate 5 corridor, its core component from Portland, Oregon to Vancouver, British Columbia, with eventual extensions to Eugene, Oregon (in the south) and Whistler, British Columbia (in the north). The initial phase of the project would link Tacoma to Seattle, mirroring the old interurban line between those two cities. The same idea has re-surfaced with a conventional high-speed rail proposal, although its extension into British Columbia has been largely blocked by opposition on the part of the City of White Rock, British Columbia, which would sit astride the line.

[Sunting] Vactrain

Maklumat lanjut: Swissmetro

More exotic proposals include maglev lines through vacuum-filled tunnels (see Vactrain), where the absence of air resistance would allow extremely high speeds, up to 6000-8000 km/h (4000-5000 mph) according to some sources. Theoretically, these tunnels could be built deep enough to pass under oceans or to use gravity to assist the trains' acceleration. This would likely be prohibitively costly without major advances in tunnelling technology. Alternatives such as elevated concrete tubes with partial vacuums have been proposed to reduce these costs. If the trains topped out at around 8000 km/h (5000 mph), the 5567km trip between London and New York would take a short 54 minutes, effectively supplanting aircraft as the world's fastest mode of public transportation.

[Sunting] UniModal

UniModal is a personal rapid transit idea that proposes to use Inductrack suspension to achieve speeds of 160 km/h (100 mph).

[Sunting] References

• Heller, Arnie, "A New Approach for Magnetically Levitating Trains--and Rockets", Science & Technology Review, June 1998.
• Hood, Christopher P. (2006). Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan, Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32052-6.
• Moon, Francis C. (1994). Superconducting Levitation Applications to Bearings and Magnetic Transportation, Wiley-VCH. ISBN 0-471-55925-3.

[Sunting] See also

Lihat galeri mengenai: Kereta api Maglev di Wikimedia Commons.

• Chuo Shinkansen, planned Tokyo-Osaka maglev Shinkansen line
• Ground effect train
• High-speed rail
• JR-Maglev MLX01
• Land speed record for railed vehicles
• Magnetic levitation
• Personal rapid transit
• Shanghai Maglev Train, world's first commercial maglev line
• Shanghai-Hangzhou Maglev Train, proposed maglev line in China
• Swissmetro
• Transrapid

[Sunting] External links

[Sunting] General

• Maglev video gallery
• Basic information, photos and links
• The International Maglev Board
• Federal Railroad Administration - MAGLEV
• Report to Congess: Costs and Benefits of Magnetic Levitation
• Urban Maglev Interest Group
• Maglev Quicklinks
• Maglev in Asia (China, Shanghai), Japan (Yamanashi) and Germany (Munich; TVE)
• Lawrence Livermore's InducTrack Site
• Maglev World Forum
• Magnetic Levitation for Transportation
• How stuff works maglev article

[Sunting] Transrapid

• International Maglev Board
• Transrapid
• Shanghai Pudong Airport Maglev in depth
• News story of accident on 22 September 2006
• The UK Ultraspeed Project
• Consortium Transrapid Nederland
• Baltimore-Washington Maglev Project
• California Maglev Project
• Magnetbahn-bayern
• Bmg-bayern
• Swissmetro
• Pennsylvania Project

[Sunting] Japanese maglev

[Sunting] Linear motor car

• RTRI MLX01
• RTRI Maglev R&D
• RTRI Technologies of Maglev

• Yamanashi Linear Express Fan Club (in Japanese)
• A site with MLX01 video and photo (in Japanese)
• MLX01 Video
• Another MLX01 video

• Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI)
• RTRI Maglev Systems Development Department
• Central Japan Railway Company
• Central Japan Railway Company - Chuo Shinkansen
• Central Japan Railway Company - Superconducting Maglev
• Central Japan Railway Company - Linear Express
• Linear Chuo Express (in Japanese)
• Linear Chuo Express for kids website (in Japanese)
• Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project

• Other Japanese Maglev Links

[Sunting] Maglev train companies

These websites contain further information provided by companies building maglev trains (alphabetical order).

• American Maglev Technology, Inc. (USA)
• Changchun Passenger Railway Car Plant (China)
• Cheng Du Aircraft Industrial (Group) Co. LTD (China)
• General Atomics (USA)
• HSST (Japan)
• Maglev2000 (USA)
• MagneMotion M3 (USA)
• Magplane (USA/China)
• Rotem (Korea)
• Tangshan Locomotive & Rolling Stock Works (China)
• Transrapid International (Germany)

Templat:High-speed trains