Listă de limbaje de programare după categorie
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O listă de limbaje de programare este alcătuită din cele mai cunoscute limbaje de programare care există în prezent sau care au existat de la începutul erei computerelor.
Această listă de limbaje de programare este sortată după categorie. Altele sînt ordonate după alte criterii, după cum urmează:
- Alfabetică
- După categorie
- Cronologică
- După generaţie
[modifică] Limbaje vectoriale
Limbajele vectoriale generalizează operaţiile pe calari pentru a le aplica în mod transparent vectorilor, matricelor şi altor tabele multi-dimensionale
- A+
- APL
- F
- FISh
- Fortran 90 and later versions
- IDL
- J
- K
- MATLAB
- NESL
- Nial
- PDL
- ZPL
[modifică] Limbaje orientate pe aspect
- AspectJ
- CaesarJ
- CLOS
- Compose*
- JAsCo
- ObjectTeams
[modifică] Limbaje de asamblare
Assembly languages directly correspond to a machine language (see below) in order to allow machine code instructions to be written in a form understandable by humans. Assembly languages allow programmers to use symbolic addresses which are later converted to absolute addresses by the assembler. Most assemblers also allow for macros and symbolic constants.
- ASEM-51
- a56 (for Motorola DSP56000 DSPs, DSP56k series)
- AKI (AvtoKod Ingenera, "engineer's autocode" for Minsk family of computers)
- ASCENT (ASsembler for CENTral Processor Unit of Control Data Corporation computer systems pre-COMPASS)
- ASPER (ASsembler for PERipheral Processor Units of Control Data Corporation computer systems pre-COMPASS)
- C-- (name used by a few languages that bring C language closer to Assembly)
- COMPASS (COMPrehensive ASSembler)
- Emu8086 (x86 assembler and Intel's 8086 microprocessor emulator)
- FAP (FORTRAN Assembly Program, for IBM 709, 7090, 7094 mainframes)
- FASM (Flat Assembler; IA-32, IA-64)
- GAS (GNU Assembler)
- HLA (High Level Assembler)
- HLASM (High Level Assembler, for mainframes)
- Linoleum (for cross platform use)
- MACRO-11 (for DEC PDP-11)
- MACRO-32 (for DEC VAX)
- MASM (Microsoft Macro Assembler)
- MI (Machine Interface, compile-time intermediate language)
- NASM (Netwide Assembler)
- PAL-III (for DEC PDP-8)
- RosASM (32 bit Assembler; The Bottom Up Assembler)
- Sphinx C-- (mixes Assembly commands with C-like structures)
- SSK (Sistema Simvolicheskogo Kodirovaniya, or "System of symbolic coding") for Minsk family of computers
- TASM (Turbo Assembler, Borland)
[modifică] Authoring languages
- Bigwig (web design language)
- Coursewriter
- PILOT
- TUTOR
[modifică] Command line interface languages
Command line interface (CLI) languages are also called batch languages, or job control languages. Examples:
- sh (the standard Unix shell, written by Stephen Bourne)
- bash (the "Bourne-Again" shell from GNU/FSF)
- CHAIN
- Ch (C-compatible shell)
- CLIST (MVS Command List)
- csh (C-like shell from Bill Joy at UC Berkeley)
- DCL DIGITAL Command Language - standard CLI language for VMS (DEC, Compaq, HP)
- DOS batch language (standard CLI/batch language for the IBM PC running DR-DOS, MS-DOS, or PC-DOS before Windows)
- EXEC
- EXEC 2
- JCL
- ksh (another standard Unix shell, written by David Korn)
- Windows PowerShell (Microsoft .NET-based CLI)
- REXX
- Winbatch (Windows batch file language)
- zsh
[modifică] Compiled languages
These are languages typically processed by compilers, though theoretically any language can be compiled or interpreted.
- Ada (multi-purpose language)
- ALGOL (extremely influential language design. The second high level language compiler.)
- SMALL Machine Algol Like Language
- BASIC (some dialects, including the first version of Dartmouth BASIC)
- C (one of the most widely-used procedural programming languages)
- C++
- C# (compiled into Intermediate Language bytecode)
- CLEO (Clear language for expressing orders) used the compiler for the British Leo computers
- CLush (Lush)
- COBOL
- Common Lisp
- Corn
- D
- Delphi (Borland's Object Pascal development system)
- Fortran (the first high level, compiled, language, from IBM, John Backus, et al)
- Java (originally from Sun Microsystems; usually compiled into JVM bytecode although true compiled versions exist)
- Nemerle (compiled into Intermediate Language bytecode)
- Ocaml
- Pascal (most implementations)
- Scheme (some implementations, e.g. Gambit)
- Standard ML
- Visual Basic (from Microsoft)
- Visual Foxpro
- Visual Prolog
[modifică] Concatenative languages
Concatenative languages express programs as the concatenation of smaller programs.
- Factor
- Forth
- Joy
[modifică] Concurrent languages
Message-passing languages provide language constructs for concurrency. The predominant paradigm for concurrency in mainstream languages such as Java is shared-memory concurrency based on monitors. Concurrent languages that make use of message-passing have generally been inspired by CSP or the π-calculus, but have had little commercial success, except for Ada and Erlang. Ada is a multipurpose language and concurrent programming is only one option available.
- Ada (multi-purpose language)
- Afnix – concurrent access to data is protected automatically (previously called Aleph, but unrelated to Alef)
- Alef – concurrent language with threads and message passing, used for systems programming in early versions of Plan 9 from Bell Labs
- ChucK – domain specific programming language for audio, precise control over concurrency and timing
- Cilk – a concurrent C
- Cω – C Omega, a research language extending C#, uses asynchronous communication
- Concurrent Pascal (by Brinch-Hansen)
- Corn
- Curry
- E – uses promises, ensures deadlocks cannot occur
- Erlang – uses asynchronous message passing with nothing shared
- Java programming language
- Join Java – concurrent language based on the Java programming language
- Join-calculus
- Joule – dataflow language, communicates by message passing
- Limbo – relative of Alef, used for systems programming in Inferno (operating system)
- MultiLisp – Scheme variant extended to support parallelism
- occam – influenced heavily by Communicating Sequential Processes (CSP).
- occam-π – a modern variant of occam, which incorporates ideas from Milner's π-calculus
- Oz – multiparadigm language, supports shared-state and message-passing concurrency, and futures
- Mozart Programming System – multiplatform Oz
- Pict – essentially an executable implementation of Milner's π-calculus
- SALSA – actor language with token-passing, join, and first-class continuations for distributed computing over the Internet
- SR – research language
[modifică] Curly-bracket languages
The programming languages in the curly bracket family have a syntax that defines statement blocks using the "curly bracket" or "brace" characters { and }. All these languages descend from or are strongly influenced by C. Examples of curly-bracket languages include:
- ABCL/c+
- C - developed circa 1970 at Bell Labs
- C++
- C#
- Ch - embeddable C/C++ interpreter
- Cilk - concurrent C for multithreaded parallel programming
- ChucK - audio programming language
- Coyote - safer C variant to lower the likelihood of some common errors, e.g., buffer overflows
- Cyclone - safer C variant
- D - safer faster C/C++ variant
- DINO
- E
- ECMAScript a.k.a. ActionScript, DMDScript, JavaScript, JScript
- Frink
- Java
- LPC
- Nemerle - combines C# and ML features
- Perl
- PHP
- Pico
- Pike
- SuperCollider
- The Unix shells: AWK, C shell (csh)
- UnrealScript
- Yorick
[modifică] Dataflow languages
Dataflow languages rely on a (usually visual) representation of the flow of data to specify the program. Frequently used for reacting to discrete events or for processing streams of data. Examples of dataflow languages include:
- Hartmann pipelines
- LabVIEW
- Max
- Prograph
- Pure data
- VEE
- VisSim
[modifică] Data-oriented languages
Data-oriented languages provide powerful ways of searching and manipulating the relations that have been described as entity relationship tables which map one set of things into other sets. Examples of data-oriented languages include:
- dBase a relational database access language
- M (an ANSI standard general purpose language with specializations for database work.)
- SQL
- Tutorial D, see also The Third Manifesto
- Visual Foxpro native rdbms engine, object oriented, functional, RAD
- Clarion
[modifică] Data-structured languages
Data-structured languages are those where logic is structured in ways similar to their data. Such languages are generally well suited to reflection and introspection. Examples:
- Array-based
- APL
- J
- List-based
- Joy
- Lisp
- Arc
- Dylan
- CodeSimian programming language (similar to Lisp, but made with Java)
- Scheme
- Logo
- Lush
- Tcl
- TRAC
- Stack-based (open stacks)
- Forth
- Poplog
- PostScript
- Assembly languages which statically link data inline with instructions can be considered data-structured, in the most primitive way.
[modifică] Declarative languages
Declarative languages describe a problem rather than defining a solution. Declarative programming stands in contrast to Imperative programming via imperative programming languages, where serial orders (imperatives) are given to a computer. In addition to the examples given just below, all (pure) Functional and Logic-based programming languages are also declarative. In fact, "functional" and "logical" constitute the usual subcategories of the declarative category.
[modifică] Extension languages
Extension programming languages are languages intended to be embedded into another program and used to harness its features in extension scripts.
[modifică] Fourth-generation languages
Fourth-generation programming languages are high-level languages built around database systems. They are generally used in commercial environments.
- ABAP
- ADMINS
- BuildProfessional
- CorVision
- CSC's GraphTalk
- Focus
- GEMBASE
- Informix-4GL / Aubit-4GL
- LINC
- Oracle Express 4GL
- Revolution Revolution isn't built around a database, but the goal is still to operate at a higher level of abstraction than 3GLs
- SAS
- Today
- Ubercode (VHLL, or very high level language)
- Visual DataFlex
- Visual Foxpro
[modifică] Functional languages
Functional programming languages define programs and subroutines as mathematical functions. Many so-called functional languages are "impure", containing imperative features. Not surprisingly, many of these languages are tied to mathematical calculation tools. Functional languages include:
- APL
- Charity
- Clean (purely functional)
- CodeSimian programming language
- Curry
- Dylan
- Erlang
- F#
- Haskell (purely functional)
- J
- Joy
- Lisp
- Lush
- Maple
- Mathematica
- ML
- Nemerle
- Ocaml
- Opal
- OPS5
- Q
- REFAL
- Scheme
- Spreadsheets
[modifică] Interpreted languages
Interpreted languages are programming languages which programs may be executed from source code form, by an interpreter.
- APL
- AutoIt scripting language
- BASIC (some dialects)
- CodeSimian programming language
- Databus (later versions added optional compiling)
- Forth
- Frink
- J
- Lisp (early versions, pre-1962, and some experimental ones; production Lisp systems are compilers)
- Lush
- Pascal (early implementations)
- REXX
- VBScript
- Some scripting languages (below)
[modifică] Iterative languages
Languages built around or offering generators
- Aldor
- Alphard
- CLU
- Icon
- IPL-v
- Lua
- Lush
- Python
- Sather
[modifică] Little languages
Little languages serve a specialized problem domain.
- awk can serve as a prototyping language for C, because the syntax is similar
- SQL has only a few keywords, and not all the constructs needed for a full programming language
[modifică] Logic-based languages
Logic-based languages specify a set of attributes that a solution must have, rather than a set of steps to obtain a solution. Examples:
- ALF
- Curry
- Janus
- Leda
- Oz
- Mozart Programming System a multiplatform Oz
- Prolog (formulates data and the program evaluation mechanism as a special form of mathematical logic called Horn logic and a general proving mechanism called logical resolution)
- Visual Prolog (object-oriented Prolog extension)
- Mercury (based on Prolog)
- ROOP
[modifică] Machine languages
Machine languages are directly executable by a computer's CPU. They are typically formulated as bit patterns, usually represented in octal or hexadecimal. Each group of npatterns (often 1 or more bytes) causes the circuits in the CPU to execute one of the fundamental operations of the hardware. The activation of specific electrical inputs (eg, CPU package pins for microprocessors), and logical settings for CPU state values, control the processor's computation. Individual machine languages are processor specific and are not portable. They are (essentially) always defined by the CPU developer, not by 3rd parties. The symbolic version, the processor's assembly language, is also defined by the developer, in most cases. Since processors come in families which are based on a shared architecture, the same basic assembly language style can often be used for more than one CPU. Each of the following CPUs served as the basis for a family of processors:
- ARM
- Intel 80x86
- Intel 8008/8080/8085
- MIPS R2000|R3000
- MOS Tech 6502
- Motorola 680x
- Motorola 680x0
- National 32032
- IBM POWER, PowerPC
- StrongARM
- Sun SPARC, UltraSPARC
[modifică] Macro languages
Macro languages embed small pieces of executable code inside a piece of free-form text.
- C Preprocessor
- M4 (originally from AT&T, bundled with Unix)
- PHP
- SMX
- Stage 2
- Scripting languages such as Tcl and ECMAScript (a.k.a. ActionScript, DMDScript, JavaScript, JScript) have been embedded into applications so that they behave like macro languages.
[modifică] Multiparadigm languages
Multiparadigm languages support more than one programming paradigm. They allow a program to use more than one programming style. The goal is to allow programmers to use the best tool for a job, admitting that no one paradigm solves all problems in the easiest or most efficient way.
- Ada (concurrent, distributed, generic (template metaprogramming), imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- ALF (functional, logic)
- APL (functional, imperative)
- BETA (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- C++ (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- ChucK (imperative, object-oriented, time-based, concurrent, on-the-fly)
- Common Lisp (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), aspect-oriented, (user may add further paradigms, e.g., logic))
- Corn (concurrent, generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- Curry (concurrent, functional, logic)
- D (generic, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- Dylan (functional, object-oriented (class-based))
- J (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- JavaScript (functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-based))
- LabVIEW (dataflow, visual)
- Leda (functional, imperative, logic, object-oriented (class-based))
- Lua (functional, imperative, object-oriented (prototype-based))
- Nemerle (functional, object-oriented (class-based), imperative)
- Objective Caml (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- Oz (functional (evaluation: eager, lazy), logic, constraint, imperative, object-oriented (class-based), concurrent, distributed)
- Mozart Programming System (multiplatform Oz)
- Object Pascal (imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- Perl (imperative, functional (can't be purely functional), object-oriented, class-oriented, aspect-oriented (through modules))
- PHP (imperative, object-oriented)
- Pliant (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
- Prograph (dataflow, object-oriented (class-based), visual)
- Python (functional, object-oriented (class-based))
- REBOL (functional, object-oriented (prototype-based))
- ROOP (imperative, logic, object-oriented (class-based), rule-based)
- Ruby (functional, object-oriented (class-based))
- SISAL (concurrent, dataflow, functional)
- Spreadsheets (functional, visual)
- Tcl (functional, imperative, object-oriented (class-based))
[modifică] Numerical analysis
- Algae
[modifică] Non-English-based languages
Non-English-based programming languages:
- ARLOGO - Arabic
- Chinese BASIC - Chinese
- Fjölnir - Icelandic
- HPL - Hebrew
- Lexico - Spanish
- Rapira - Russian
- var'aq - Klingon
[modifică] Object-oriented class-based languages
Object-oriented programming languages support 'data & method' objects. The data structures are defined in object classes, which also include executable code (methods). Thus the effects of a change to the code remain localized. Object classes can be extended by inheritance in most of these languages. Examples:
- Actor
- Ada 95 (multi-purpose language)
- BETA
- C++
- C#
- Chrome programming language
- ChucK
- Common Lisp
- Corn
- D
- Delphi
- Dylan
- ECMAScript a.k.a. ActionScript, DMDScript, JavaScript, JScript (originally from Sun and Netscape)
- Eiffel
- F-Script
- Fortran 2003
- Fortress
- J
- Java (closely related to C++, but with built-in garbage collection, removal of unsafe features and some advanced ones, compilation to universally runnable 'bytecode', protective sandbox for security -- originally from Sun Microsystems)
- Lava
- Lua
- Modula-2 (data abstraction, information hiding, strong typing, full modularity -- from N Wirth)
- Modula-3 (added more object oriented features to Modula-2)
- Objective Modula-2 (Modula-2 with Smalltalk message passing, following the Objective-C object model)
- Nemerle
- NetRexx
- Oberon (full object orientation equivalence in an original, strongly typed, Wirthian manner)
- Object Pascal
- Object REXX
- Objective-C (a superset of C adding a Smalltalk derived object model and message passing syntax)
- Objective Caml
- Oz
- Mozart Programming System
- Perl 5
- PHP
- Pliant
- PowerBuilder
- Prograph
- Python (object oriented interpretive language)
- Revolution (programmer does not get to pick the objects)
- Ruby
- Sather
- Simula (the first object oriented language, from Norway)
- Smalltalk (pure object-orientation, originally from Xerox PARC)
- Bistro
- F-Script
- Little Smalltalk
- Squeak
- VisualAge
- VisualWorks
- SuperCollider
- Ubercode
- VBScript (Microsoft Office 'macro scripting' language)
- Visual Basic
- Visual DataFlex
- Visual Foxpro
- Visual Prolog
- XOTcl
[modifică] Object-oriented prototype-based languages
Object-oriented languages where the distinction between classes and instances have been removed:
- ABCL/1
- ABCL/R
- ABCL/R2
- ABCL/c plus
- ActionScript
- Agora
- Cecil
- CodeSimian programming language
- ECMAScript a.k.a. ActionScript, DMDScript, JavaScript, JScript (first named Mocha, then LiveScript)
- Io
- MOO
- NewtonScript
- Obliq
- REBOL
- Self (the first prototype-based language, derived from Smalltalk)
- Slate
- TADS
[modifică] Off-side rule languages
Off-side rule languages are those where blocks are formed, indicated, by their indentation.
- ISWIM, the abstract language that introduced the rule
- ABC, Python's parent
- Python
- Miranda, Haskell's parent
- Haskell
- Curry
- Haskell
- Occam
- Pliant
[modifică] Procedural languages
Procedural programming languages are based on the concept of the unit and scope (the data viewing range of an executable code statement). A procedural program is composed of one or more units or modules, either user coded or provided in a code library; each module is composed of one or more procedures, also called a function, routine, subroutine, or method, depending on the language. Examples of procedural languages include:
- Ada (multi-purpose language)
- ALGOL (extremely influential language design. The second high level language compiler.)
- SMALL Machine Algol Like Language
- BASIC (BASICs are innocent of most modularity in (especially) versions prior to about 1990)
- C
- C++ (C with objects + much else)
- C# (from Microsoft, a next generation Java/C++ like language)
- ChucK (C/Java-like syntax, with new syntax elements for time and parallelism)
- ColdFusion
- COBOL
- Component Pascal (an Oberon-2 variant)
- D
- Delphi
- ECMAScript a.k.a. ActionScript, DMDScript, JavaScript, JScript
- Fortran (better modularity in later Standards)
- F
- FPC Pascal (Pascal dialect)
- Java
- Modula-2 (fundamentally based on modules)
- Oberon and Oberon-2 (improved, smaller, faster, safer follow-ons for Modula-2)
- MATLAB
- M (more modular in its first release than a language of the time should have been; the standard has become still more modular since then)
- Nemerle
- Occam
- Pascal (successor to Algol60 and predecessor of Modula-2)
- Perl
- PL/C
- PL/I (large general purpose language, originally for IBM mainframes)
- Rapira
- Seed7
- VBScript
- Visual Basic
- Visual Foxpro
[modifică] Reflective languages
Reflective languages let programs examine and possibly modify their high level structure at runtime. This is most common in high-level virtual machine programming languages like Smalltalk, and less common in lower-level programming languages like C. Languages and platforms supporting reflection:
- Aspect-oriented
- Befunge
- ChucK
- Curl
- CodeSimian programming language
- Dylan
- ECMAScript a.k.a. ActionScript, DMDScript, JavaScript, JScript
- Eiffel
- Forth
- Java
- Java Virtual Machine
- Lisp
- Logo
- Lua
- Maude system
- .NET Common Language Runtime
- Oberon
- Objective-C
- Objective Modula-2
- Perl
- PHP
- Pico
- Pliant
- POP-11
- Poplog
- Prolog
- Python
- REBOL
- Ruby
- Scheme
- Self
- Smalltalk (pure object-orientation, originally from Xerox PARC)
- Bistro
- F-Script
- Little Smalltalk
- Squeak
- VisualAge
- VisualWorks
- Snobol
- Tcl
- XOTcl
[modifică] Rule-based languages
Rule-based languages instantiate rules when activated by conditions in a set of data. Of all possible activations, some set will be selected and the statements belonging to those rules will be executed. Examples of rule-based languages include:
- Clips
- Constraint Handling Rules
- Jess
- OPS5
- Prolog
[modifică] Scripting languages
"Scripting language" has two apparently different, but in fact similar meanings.
- In a traditional sense, scripting languages are designed to automate frequently used tasks that usually involve calling or passing commands to external programs.
- Many complex application programs allow users to implement custom functions by providing them with built-in languages. Those which are of interpretive type, are often called scripting languages.
- More recently many of these applications have chosen to "build in" traditional scripting languages, such as Perl or Visual Basic, but there are quite a few "native" scripting languages still in use.
- Many scripting languages are compiled to bytecode and then this (usually) platform independent bytecode is run through a virtual machine (compare to Java).
- AWK
- AppleScript
- BeanShell
- Ch (Embeddable C/C++ interpreter)
- CLIST
- ColdFusion
- ECMAScript a.k.a. ActionScript, DMDScript, JavaScript, JScript
- EXEC
- EXEC 2
- F-Script
- Frink
- Groovy
- ICI
- Io
- JASS
- Lua
- Mondrian
- Perl
- PHP (intended for Web servers)
- Python
- REXX
- Ruby
- Sed
- Tcl
- Revolution
- VBScript
- Many shell command languages such as the UNIX shell or DCL on VMS have powerful scripting capabilities.
[modifică] Synchronous languages
Synchronous programming languages are optimized for programming reactive systems, systems that are often interrupted and must respond quickly. Many such systems are also called realtime systems, and are found often in embedded uses. Examples:
- Argos
- Averest
- Esterel
- LEA
- Lustre
- Signal
- SyncCharts
[modifică] Syntax handling languages
- GNU bison (FSF's version of Yacc)
- GNU Flex (FSF's version of Lex)
- Lex (Lexical analysis, from Bell Labs)
- M4
- yacc (yet another compiler compiler, from Bell Labs)
- javacc
[modifică] Visual languages
Visual programming languages let users specify programs in a two-(or more)-dimensional way, instead of as one-dimensional text strings, via graphic layouts of various types.
- CODE
- Some Dataflow languages
- Fabrik
- Hyperpascal
- LabVIEW
- Lava
- Limnor
- Max
- Mindscript - software visualization and development environment, open source
- Pict
- Prograph
- Pure Data
- Quartz Composer
- Simulink
- Spreadsheets
- Subtext
- Tinkertoy
- VEE
- VisSim
- VVVV
[modifică] Wirth languages
Computer scientist Niklaus Wirth designed and implemented several influential languages.
- Algol W
- Modula
- Modula-2
- Oberon
- Pascal
[modifică] XML-based languages
These are languages based on or that operate on XML. Although the big-boy equivalents of Oracle/PostgreSQL/MSSQL don't yet exist for XML, there are languages to navigate through it and its more tree-oriented structure.
- ECMAScript E4X
- Jelly
- XPath
- XQuery
- XSLT
