Military history of Japan

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History of Japan
Paleolithic Jomon period Yayoi period Kofun period Asuka period Nara period Heian period Kamakura period Kemmu restoration Muromachi period Nanboku-cho period Sengoku period Azuchi-Momoyama period Nanban trade Edo period Late Tokugawa shogunate Meiji period Meiji Restoration Taishō period Japan in WWI Shōwa period Japanese expansionism Occupied Japan Post-Occupation Japan Heisei
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Glossary

The military history of Japan is  characterized by a long period of feudal wars, followed by domestic stability, and  then foreign conquest. it  culminates with Japan's defeat by the Allies in World War II. Since then, Japan's constitution has prohibited the use of military force to wage war against other countries.

Unless one counts the American Occupation following World War II, the Japanese main islands have  never been successfully invaded.

[edit] Pre History

Recent archaeological research has uncovered traces of wars as far back as the Jomon period (ca. 10,000 - 300 BC) between the various tribes existing on the Japanese Archipelago. Some theorists believe that during the Yayoi period (ca. 300 BC - 250 AD) horse riders from the Korean Peninsula invaded southern Kyūshū, then spread to all the way to northern Honshū. This is  when horse-riding and  iron tools were first introduced to the islands.

[edit] Jomon Period (ca. 10,000 - 300 BC)

Near the end of the Jomon period (ca. 300 BC), villages and  towns became surrounded by moats and  wooden fences. Some remains were found with head and  arrow injuries. Battles were fought with weapons like the sword, sling, spear, and  bow and  arrow.

[edit] Yayoi Period (300 BC - 250 AD)

Bronze goods and  bronze-making techniques from the Asian mainland reached what is  now Japan as early as the 3rd century BC. it  is believed that horse riders from the Manchuria via the Korean Peninsula also brought the first horses and  iron weapons. The transition from the Jomon to Yayoi period may have  been characterized by violent struggle as the natives were soon displaced by the invaders and  their vastly superior military technology. ^[1]

Around this time, the Wei Chih (or "Chinese Chronicles") from the Han Dynasty refer to the nation of Wo (or "Wa" in Japanese). According to this work, Wa was "divided into more  than 100 tribes" and  for some 70 or  80 years there were many disturbances and  warfare. About 30 of the communities had been united by a sorceress-queen named Pimiko (or "Himiko" in Japanese). She sent an  emissary named Nashonmi with a tribute of slaves and  cloth to Daifang in China, establishing diplomatic relations with Cao Wei (the Chinese kingdom of Wei). Cao was competing with the three kingdoms.

[ and  Classical Japan">edit] Ancient and  Classical Japan

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Iron helmet and  armour with gilt bronze decoration, Kofun era, 5th century. Tokyo National Museum.

By the end of the 4th century, the Yamato clan was well settled on the Nara plain with considerable control over the surrounding areas. it  exchanged diplomatic envoys with the Three Kingdoms of Korea and  Chinese rulers. Yamato was even strong enough to have  sent an  army against the powerful state of Goguryeo, which then dominated the Korean Peninsula at the time. it  was most closely associated with the southwestern Korean kingdom of Baekje (百斉, or  "Kudara" in Japanese), whence came the Seven-Branched Sword (or "shichishito" in Japanese).

Near the end of the Heian period, the samurai became a powerful political force, thus starting the feudal period.

[edit] Yamato Period (250 - 710 AD)

Wa Japan had close ties with the Gaya Confederacy in Korean peninsula. Gaya exported abundant quantities of iron armor and  weapons to Wa and  there may have  even been a Japanese military post there. Although the Nihonshoki claims that Gaya ("Mimana" in Japanese) was a colony or  tributary of Wa, most scholars^{[citation needed]} have  rejected this on the basis that there is  no mention of it  in either the older Kojiki or  in any Korean records. In addition, no archaeological evidence indicating Japanese presence has been found from this period.

In 552, the ruler of Baekje appealed to Yamato for help against its enemies, neighboring Silla and  its ally Tang Dynasty China. Along with his emissaries to the Yamato court, the Baekje king sent bronze images of Buddha, some Buddhist scriptures, and  a letter praising Buddhism. These gifts triggered powerful burst of Japanese interest in Buddhism.

The Battle of Baekgang (白村江) took place in 663. Nihonshoki records that Yamato sent 32,000 troops and  1,000 ships to support Baekje against Silla-Tang force. However, Baekje collapsed and  Japan withdrew from Korean peninsula.

[edit] Nara Period (710-784 AD)

In nearly all of the ways that matter, the Nara period was the beginning of Japanese culture becoming what we today think of as Japanese. it  was in this period that Japan first gained Buddhism, the Chinese writing system, and  tea ceremony. The country was united and  centrally governed for the first time, and  much of the basics of the feudal system were set down.

While much of the discipline, weapons, armor, and  technique of the samurai was probably not developed yet, the skeleton of the Japanese feudal warrior began here. Mounted archers, swordsmen, and  spearmen fought with weapons not too different from those of any other culture, across the world, who had the same level of technology.

Succession disputes were prevalent here, just as in most of the later periods, and  the Nara period also saw the first Shogun, Otomo no Yakamochi.

[edit] Heian Period (794 - 1185 AD)

Scene of the Genpei War (12th century screen).

The Heian Period, militarily, consisted mainly of conflicts and  battles between samurai clans over political power and  influence, especially fought over control over the line of succession to the Chrysanthemum Throne. The Imperial family fights against the control of the Fujiwara clan, which almost exclusively monopolized the post of regent. The feudal conflicts over land, political power, and  influence eventually culminated in the Genpei War, between the Taira and  Minamoto clans, and  a large number of smaller clans that allied with one side or  the other. The end of the Genpei War brought the beginning of the Kamakura period, and  the end of the Heian.

During this period, samurai were still, largely, archers first and  foremost, before swordsmen. Nearly all duels and  battles began with an  exchange of arrowfire, before single combat was entered, with sword and  dagger.

[edit] Feudal Japan

This period is  marked by the departure from tournament-like battles, and  a move to massive clashes of clans for the control of Japan. In the Kamakura period, Japan successfully repulsed Mongol invasions and  this started a change to conscripted armies with a core of samurai as an  elite force and  as commanders. The Muromachi period was a brief period of peace but traditional aristocrats completely lost power as the samurai continued to grow in importance.

[edit] Kamakura Period (1185 - 1333 AD)

The Samurai Suenaga facing Mongols, during the Mongol invasions of Japan. Moko Shurai Ekotoba (蒙古襲来絵詞), circa 1293.

The Mongols, who controlled China at the time under the Yuan Dynasty, attempted to invade Japan twice in the 1200s. In early October 1274, the Battle of Bun'ei began with a combined force of Mongols and  Koreans invading Tsushima. On 19 October, they lost many battle ships due to typhoon and  the remaining troops retreated. A second attempt was made during the Battle of Kōan and  the Mongol-led forces retreated after losing many ships due to a typhoon once again.

[edit] Muromachi Period (1336 - 1573 AD)

Forces of Korea's Joseon Dynasty under the direction of general Yi Jong Mu invaded Tsushima on 19 June 1419, but were repulsed at Nii. The victory is  known to locals as the Battle of Nukadake (糠岳の戦い). The Korean troops retreated on 3 July. (For more  information, see Oei Invasion.)

[edit] Azuchi-Momoyama Period (1568 -1600 AD)

Nanban (Western)-style samurai cuirass, 16th century.

This period, named for the castle-cities which became increasingly important, is  marked with the introduction of firearms, after contact with the Portuguese, and  a complete disappearance of personal braveries as the factor in a battle. In the Battle of Nagashino in 1575, about 3,000 arquebusiers led by Oda Nobunaga cut down charging ranks of samurai. After a series of fierce battles, Buddhist monks were stripped of their domains and  turned into a purely religious authority.

Regent Toyotomi Hideyoshi organized a 160,000-man army and  navy for the conquest of China's Ming Dynasty in 1592 (Battle of Bunroku, 文禄の役). Although the Japanese forces scored initial victories on land, the Japanese navy was completely devastated by the much smaller Korean navy. In addition, China sent military aid to Korea helping seal victory against Japan. After Hideyoshi's death, the Council of Five Elders ordered the remaining Japanese forces in Korea to retreat.

Tokugawa Ieyasu, one of the regents, took control of most of the former leader's forces. In 1600 he won the battle of Sekigahara and  solidified his rule. In 1603, he received the title of shogun, making him the nominal ruler of the entire country.

[edit] Edo Period (1603 - 1867 AD)

This period was one of relative peace under the authority of the Bakufu (shogunate). it  would remain so until the Meiji Revolution and  the subsequent rise of Japanese imperialism in Asia.

Two major military events did occur, however, during the decades following the Battle of Sekigahara:

Samurai of the Satsuma clan, during the Boshin War period, circa 1867. Photograph by Felice Beato

• The Siege of Osaka, 1614–1615 in which the Tokugawa shogunate defeated the forces of Toyotomi Hideyori
• The Shimabara Rebellion, 1637–1638, in which the Tokugawa shogunate defeated peasants in Hizen and  Higo Provinces.

The Boshin War (戊辰戦争 Boshin Sensō, literally "War of the Year of the Dragon") was fought in 1868-1869 between the Tokugawa Shogunate and  the pro-Imperial forces in Japan. The defeat of the shogunate led directly to the Meiji Restoration.

[edit] Modern Period

After a long peace, Japan rearmed by importing, then manufacturing Western weapons, and  finally manufacturing weapons of their own design. During the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905), Japan became the first Asian nation to win a war against a European nation. it  also became the first Asian nation to sign a mutual defence pact with a European nation, Britain.

Japan was also the last major power to enter the race to colonize the world. Severely hampered by its still-developing industries, Japan started a war against the United States during World War II with less  than one-tenth of the industrial capabilities of the U.S.

Japan has never participated in a major war as a combatant after being defeated in World War II. Even though Japan remains a military power, it  is prevented by political and  ideological issues from exporting military hardware. In addition, Japan is  the only nation with a space exploration program, but no nuclear weapons.

[edit] Meiji Period

[edit] Modern Army Established

In 1873, the Imperial government enacted the conscription law and  established the Imperial Japanese Army. Samurai lost their status as the only class with military obligations. A sensationalized depiction of this can be seen in The Last Samurai starring Tom Cruise.

[edit] Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895)

Main article: First Sino-Japanese War

The Sino-Japanese War was fought against the forces of the Qing Dynasty of China in the Korean peninsula, Manchuria, and  the coast of China. it  was the first major conflict between Japan and  an overseas military power in modern times.

The Treaty of Shimonoseki (下関条約, Shimonoseki Jyoyaku^?) signed between Japan and  China ended the war. Through this treaty, Japan forced China to open ports for international trade and  ceded the southern portion of China's Liaoning province as well as the island of Taiwan to Japan. China also had to pay a war indemnity of 200 million Kuping taels. As a result of this war, Korea ceased to be a tributory state of China, but fell into Japan's sphere of influence. However, many of the material gains from this war were lost by Japan due to the Triple Intervention.

[edit] Russo-Japanese War

Main article: Russo-Japanese War

The Japanese victory in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905 was only the second time in modern history in which a non-Western power defeated a Western one (the first being Ethiopia's defeat of Italy in the Italo-Abysssinian war of 1895-96), and  marks the emergence of Japan as a major military power. Japan proved that it  could apply Western technology, discipline, strategy, and  tactics in an  effective war.

[edit] Taisho Period - World War I

1914: Japan was a member of the Allies during World War I and  was rewarded with control of German colonies in the Pacific. 70,000-strong Japanese force also invaded Russia during the Russian Civil War, but failed to achieve their objective and  was forced to withdraw. A small group of Japanese cruisers and  destroyers also participated in various missions in the Indian Ocean and  Mediterranean Sea.

[edit] Showa Period - World War II

Main article: Pacific War

Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, following the Manchuria Incident, in which they claimed to have  had territory attacked by the Chinese (a few meters of the South Manchuria Railway was destroyed in a bombing sabotage). By 1937, Japan had annexed territory north of Beijing and, following the Marco Polo Bridge Incident, a full-scale invasion of China (Republic of China) began. Japanese military superiority over a weak and  demoralized Chinese army allowed for swift advances down the eastern coast of China, causing the fall of Shanghai and  Nanjing (Nanking) (then capital of China) the same year. The Chinese suffered greatly in both military and  civilian casualties. an  estimated 300,000 civilians were killed during the first weeks of Japanese occupation of Nanjing, dubbed the Nanking Massacre).

In September 1940, Germany, Italy, and  Japan became allied under the Tripartite Pact. Germany, which had previously trained and  supplied the Chinese army, halted all Sino-German cooperation, and  recalled its military advisory (Alexander von Falkenhausen). In July 1940, the U.S. banned the shipment of aviation gasoline to Japan, and  by 1941, shipments of scrap metal, steel, gasoline, and  other materials had virtually ceased. Meanwhile, American economic support to China began to increase.

In April 1941, Japan and  Russia signed a neutrality pact and  Japan increased pressure on the French and  Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia to cooperate in economic matters. On 1941-07-22, Japanese forces invaded French Indochina and  occupied its naval and  air bases.

Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and  against several other countries on 1941-12-07, the United States and  the other Allies declared war; the war with China dovetailed with World War II. Japanese forces initially experienced great success against Allied forces in the Pacific and  South East Asia, capturing Thailand, Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, the Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and  many Pacific Islands. They also made major offensives in Burma and  air and  naval attacks against Australia. The Allies turned the tide of war at sea in mid-1942, at the Battle of Midway. Japanese land forces continued to advance in the New Guinea and  Solomon Islands campaigns but suffered significant defeats and/or were forced to retreat at the battles of Milne Bay, the Kokoda Track and  Guadalcanal.

From 1943 onwards, hard-fought battles at the battles of Battle of Buna-Gona, the Tarawa, Battle of the Philippine Sea, Battle of Leyte Gulf, Iwo Jima, Okinawa, and  others resulted in horrific casualties on both sides, but eventually produced further Japanese retreats. On August 6 and  9, 1945, the U.S. dropped two atomic bombs, on Hiroshima and  on Nagasaki. more  than 200,000 people died as a direct result of these two bombings. After the bombings, the Soviet Union entered the war against Japan.

Japan surrendered on August 15 1945 and  a formal Instrument of Surrender was signed on 1945-09-02, on the battleship USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay. The surrender was accepted by General Douglas MacArthur as Supreme Allied Commander, with representatives of each Allied nation, from a Japanese delegation led by Mamoru Shigemitsu. A separate surrender ceremony between Japan and  China was held in Nanking on 1945-09-09.

Douglas MacArthur signs the formal surrender of Japanese forces on the USS Missouri, 1945-09-02

Following this period, MacArthur established bases in Japan to oversee the postwar development of the country. This period in Japanese history is  known as the occupation. U.S. President Harry Truman officially proclaimed an  end of hostilities on 1946-12-31.

Over the course of the war, Japan displayed many significant advances in military technology, strategy and  tactics. Among them were the Yamato class battleship, the Sensuikan Toku submarine bomber carriers, the Mitsubishi Zero fighters, and  Kamikaze bombers.

[edit] The Atlantis Documents

It is  sometimes argued that the Japanese decision to attack the Allies was, in large part, influenced by the capture of British documents with regards to British forces, the defenses of Singapore, codes, and  information on Australia and  New Zealand, as well as an  appraisal of Japanese intentions. These documents were captured by the German Hilfskreuzer (cruiser) Atlantis, on 1940-11-11. Other elements show that Japanese military command chose to invade allied territory as a result of a failure to defend itself against Soviet forces in 1938-1939 during the Nomonhan Incident.

[edit] Post-World War II

After a period of U.S. occupation, Japan regained its independence. Japan was also forbidden to have  a standing army or  wage war by Article nine of its Constitution.

Although the Japanese constitution says "land, sea, and  air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained," the Jieitai (自衛隊), or  Japan Self-Defense Forces were created shortly after the end of U.S. occupation. The Jieitai is  one of the most technologically advanced armed forces in the world and  Japanese military expenditures are  the seventh highest in the world. For the most part, as per the Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and  Security signed in 1960, Japan relies on the United States for defense and  hosts a number of American military bases, particularly in Okinawa.

The Diet of Japan is  currently deliberating an  amendment to the Constitution which would repeal Article Nine, and  allow Japan to once again  have projective military capacity.

For the time being, Japan has deployed the Jieitai to aid in a number of non-combat missions, especially those involving humanitarian aid, such as aiding the victims of the 1995 Kobe earthquake, providing administrative support to the United Nations Interim Force In Lebanon (UNIFIL) Norwegian Battalion (NORBATT) in the 1990s, and  helping rebuild Iraq.

Some Japanese state a desire to have  their own military due to fear of the growing power of China and  the hostility of North Korea. They claim that the U.S. has failed to properly address these issues, and  therefore Japan must grant itself "the power to defend itself".

United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan recently announced a plan to expand the number of permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council, and  Japan seeks to gain one of those seats. Despite Japan's economic power and  political influence, however, it  is debatable whether or  not a country with no standing military can be considered a "world power" such that it  would be granted a permanent seat on the Council. Recent disputes with neighboring countries like China, South Korea, and  Russia over territories such as the Senkaku Islands, Takeshima Islands, and  the Kuril Islands, as well as accusations of Japanese whitewashing of history in various textbook controversy have  also complicated this process.

[edit] References

• Gordon, David M. "The China-Japan War, 1931-1945" Journal of Military History (Jan 2006) v 70#1, pp 137-82. Historiographical overview of major books

[edit] See also

• List of Japanese battles
• Battles of the Imperial Japanese Navy
• Greater East Asia War

• Military History
• World War II
  • Pacific Theater
• Imperial Japanese Army
• Imperial Japanese Navy
• History of Japan
• Japanese nationalism