Προπαγάνδα

Από τη Βικιπαίδεια, την ελεύθερη εγκυκλοπαίδεια

Προπαγάνδα είναι η παρουσίαση ενός μηνύματος με έναν συγκεκριμένο τρόπο ώστε να εξυπηρετήσει συγκεκριμένους σκοπούς. Ετυμολογικά, προπαγάνδα σημαίνει «διάδοση μίας φιλοσοφίας ή άποψης». Ιστορικά, ο όρος χρησιμοποιείται ως επί το πλείστον εντός πολιτικού συγκειμένου και ιδιαίτερα αναφορικά με συγκεκριμένες κινήσεις που προωθούνται από κυβερνήσεις ή πολιτικές ομάδες. Το προπαγανδιστικό μήνυμα διαφέρει από την γενικότερη διαφήμιση στο ότι περιέχει τρανταχτές και επιτηδευμένες ψευδολογίες ή/και παραλείπει τέτοιον όγκο αληθειών/γεγονότων σχετικών με το θέμα που καθίσταται έντονα παροδηγητικό.

Πίνακας περιεχομένων 1 Σκοπός της προπαγάνδας 2 Είδη προπαγάνδας 3 Ιστορία της προπαγάνδας 4 Τεχνικές παραγωγής προπαγάνδας 4.1 Τεχνικές διάδοσης προπαγάνδας 5 Συνδέσεις

[Επεξεργασία] Σκοπός της προπαγάνδας

Σκοπός της προπαγάνδας είναι να αλλάξει δραστικά τις απόψεις των άλλων αντί απλώς να μεταδώσει γεγονότα. Για παράδειγμα, η προπαγάνδα μπορεί να επιστρατευτεί προκειμένου να προϊδεάσει θετικά ή αρνητικά σε σχέση με κάποια ιδεολογική θέση, αντί να παρουσιάσει την ίδια την θέση. Η πρπαγάνδα διαφοροποιείται από την «κανονική» επικοινωνία, επειδή επιδιώκει να διαμορφώσει απόψεις με έμμεσες και συχνά δόλιες μεθόδους. Για παράδειγμα, η προπαγάνδα συχνά μεταδίδεται με τέτοιον τρόπο ώστε να προκαλεί ισχυρά συναισθήματα και αυτό το κάνει κυρίως με το να υπονοεί παράλογες (μη ενορατικές) σχέσεις μεταξύ ιδεών.

Η έκκληση στο συναίσθημα είναι ίσως η πιο απροκάλυπτη μέθοδος προπαγάνδας, αφού υπάρχουν πολλές άλλες μέθοδοι, λιγότερο φανερές και μάλιστα δόλιες. Επί παραδείγματι, η προπαγάνδα μπορεί να διαδίδεται έμμεσα. Μπορεί να μεταδίδεται ως εύλογη προκατάληψη εντός μιάς φαινομενικά ισορροπημένης και δίκαιης δημόσιας συζήτησης ή επιχειρηματολογίας. Αυτό μπορεί να επιτευχθεί ακόμη καλύτερα σε συνδυασμό με την μέθοδο μετάδοσης ειδήσεων των μέσων μαζικής επικοινωνίας.

Ιδού ένα υποθετικό παράδειγμα όπου υποτίθεται ότι αντιπαρατίθενται αντίθετες απόψεις: το γεράκι λέει: «Πρέπει να παραμείνουμε στην πορεία μας»· και το περιστέρι απαντά: «Ο πόλεμος απέβη καταστροφικός και απέτυχε». Τότε το γεράκι αποκρίνεται: «Στον πόλεμο τα πράγματα σπάνια πηγαίνουν ομαλά, και δεν πρέπει να επιτρέπουμε σε ένα κώλυμα να μειώνει την αποφασιστικότητά μας». Τότε το περιστέρι ανταπαντά: «Τα κωλύματα είναι κωλύματα και οι αποτυχίες είναι αποτυχίες». Όπως φαίνεται από το παράδειγμα, πουθενά δεν εξετάζεται το αν ο πόλεμος είναι τελικά νόμιμος και θεμιτός. Λακωνικά, συνοπτικά και απλουστευτικά σχόλια ονομάζονται sound bites. Όταν σε έναν δημόσιο διάλογο (που να αφορά ένα ζήτημα υπό επιχειρηματολογία που πράγματι να χρήζει διαλόγου) οι συνδιαλεγόμενοι εκφέρουν επιχειρήματά που πηγάζουν από τις ίδιες βασικές προϋποθέσεις, αλλά δίνουν την εντύπωση ότι πρεσβεύουν αντίθετες απόψεις, τότε ο διάλογος εμμέσως κατηχεί αυτές τις προκαταλήψεις ως απρόσβλητες αλήθειες, καθιστώντας τις κοινώς αποδεκτά δεδομένα για το εν λόγω ζήτημα.

Η μέθοδος της προπαγάντας είναι επίσης βασική όσον αφορά και το τι θα σημαίνει «προπαγάνδα» σε κάθε περίπτωση. Ένα μήνυμα δεν πρέπει να είναι απαραιτήτως ψευδές για να αποτελεί προπαγάνδα. Στην πραγματικότητα, τα μηνύματα της σύγχρονης προπαγάνδας δεν είναι κραυγαλέα ψευδή. Ωστόσο, ακόμη και αν το μήνυμα μεταδίδει μόνον «αληθείς» πληροφορίες, αυτές συνήθως περιέχουν φατριακούς προϊδεασμούς και δεν εκθέτουν το μήνυμα με πλήρη και ισορροπημένο τρόπο. Ένα επιπρόσθετο χαρακτηριστικό της προπαγάνδας είναι ό μεγάλος όγκος της. Δηλαδή, ένας προπαγανδιστής μπορεί να προσπαθήσει να επηρεάσει τις γνώμες με το να κάνει το μήνυμά του να ακουστέι σε όσο περισσότερα μέρη γίνεται και όσο πιο συχνά γίνεται. Σκοπός αυτής της προσέγγισης είναι (α) να ενισχύσει τις ιδέες του μέσω επανάληψης και (β) να καταπνίξει όλες τις εναλλακτικές ιδέες.

Στα ελληνικά, η λέξη «προπαγάνδα» φέρει έντονα αρνητική (καθώς και πολιτική) χροιά, μολονότι αυτό δεν ίσχυε πάντοτε.

[Επεξεργασία] Είδη προπαγάνδας

Propaganda shares techniques with advertising. In fact, advertising can be thought of as propaganda that promotes a commercial product; the word "propaganda" more typically refers to political or nationalist uses, or promotion of a set of ideas. Propaganda also has much in common with public information campaigns by governments, which are intended to encourage or discourage certain forms of behavior (such as wearing seat belts, not smoking, not littering, or so forth). Again, the emphasis is more political in propaganda. Propaganda can take the form of leaflets, posters, TV, and radio broadcasts and can also extend to any other medium.

Propaganda, in a narrower use of the term, connotates deliberately false or misleading information that supports or furthers a political cause or the interests of those in power. The propagandist seeks to change the way people understand an issue or situation for the purpose of changing their actions and expectations in ways that are desirable to the interest group. Propaganda, in this sense, serves as a corollary to censorship in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's minds with approved information, but by preventing people from being confronted with opposing points of view. What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception and confusion rather than persuasion and understanding. The leaders of an organization know the information to be one sided or untrue, but this may not be true for the rank and file members who help to disseminate the propaganda.

More in line with the religious roots of the term, it is also used widely in the debates about new religious movements (NRMs), both by people who defend them and by people who oppose them. The latter pejoratively call these NRMs cults. Anti-cult activists and countercult activists accuse the leaders of what they consider cults of using propaganda extensively to recruit followers and keep them. Some social scientists, such as the late Jeffrey Hadden, and CESNUR affiliated scholars accuse ex-members of "cults" who became vocal critics and the anti-cult movement of making these unusual religious movements look bad without sufficient reasons. [1], [2]

Propaganda is a mighty weapon in war. In this case its aim is usually to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external. The technique is to create a false image in the mind. This can be done by using special words, special avoidance of words or by saying that the enemy is responsible for certain things he never did. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious or may be based on facts. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just.

Propaganda is also one of the methods used in psychological warfare.

The term propaganda may also refer to false information meant to reinforce the mindsets of people who already believe as the propagandist wishes. The assumption is that, if people believe something false, they will constantly be assailed by doubts. Since these doubts are unpleasant (see cognitive dissonance), people will be eager to have them extinguished, and are therefore receptive to the reassurances of those in power. For this reason propaganda is often addressed to people who are already sympathetic to the agenda. This process of reinforcement uses an individual's predisposition to self-select "agreeable" information sources as a mechanism for maintaining control.

Propaganda can be classified according to the source and nature of the message. White propaganda generally comes from an openly identified source, and is characterized by gentler methods of persuasion, such as standard public relations techniques and one-sided presentation of an argument. Black propaganda often pretends to be from a friendly source, but is actually from an adversary. Black propaganda is characterized by its presentation of false information to elicit a desired response, and is often used in covert military psychological operations and by large networked organizations such as terror networks or governments. Gray propaganda may come from an adversarial source pretending to be friendly or neutral, and presents misleading information in a more insidious manner than white propaganda. In scale, these different types of propaganda can also be defined by the potential of true and correct information to compete with the propaganda. For example, opposition to white propaganda is often readily found and may slightly discredit the propaganda source. Opposition to gray propaganda, when revealed (often by an inside source), may create some level of public outcry. Opposition to black propaganda is often unavailable and may be dangerous to reveal, because public cognizance of black propaganda tactics and sources would undermine or backfire the very campaign the black propagandist supported.

Propaganda may be administered in very insidious ways. For instance, disparaging disinformation about history, certain groups, or foreign countries may be encouraged or tolerated in the educational system. Since few people actually double-check what they learn at school, such disinformation will be repeated by journalists as well as parents, thus reinforcing the idea that the disinformation item is really a "well-known fact," even though no one repeating the myth is able to point to an authoritative source. The disinformation is then recycled in the media and in the educational system, without the need for direct governmental intervention on the media.

Such permeating propaganda may be used for political goals: by giving citizens a false impression of the quality or policies of their country, they may be incited to reject certain proposals or certain remarks, or ignore the experience of others.

[Επεξεργασία] Ιστορία της προπαγάνδας

In late Latin, propaganda meant "things to be propagated". In 1622, shortly after the start of the Thirty Years' War, Pope Gregory XV founded the Congregatio de Propaganda Fide ("Congregation for Propagating the Faith"), a committee of Cardinals with the duty of overseeing the propagation of Christianity by missionaries sent to non-Catholic countries. Therefore, the term itself originates with this Roman Catholic Sacred Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith (sacra congregatio christiano nomini propagando or, briefly, propaganda fide), the department of the pontifical administration charged with the spread of Catholicism and with the regulation of ecclesiastical affairs in non-Catholic countries (mission territory).

The actual Latin stem propagand- conveys a sense of "that which ought to be spread". Originally the term was not intended to refer to misleading information. The modern political sense dates from World War I, and was not originally pejorative.

Propaganda has been a human activity as far back as reliable recorded evidence exists. The writings of Romans like Livy are considered masterpieces of pro-Roman statist propaganda.

Propaganda techniques were first codified and applied in a scientific manner by journalist Walter Lippman and psychologist Edward Bernays (nephew of Sigmund Freud) early in the 20th century. During World War I, Lippman and Bernays were hired by then United States President, Woodrow Wilson, to participate in the Creel Commission, the mission of which was to sway popular opinion in favor of entering the war, on the side of Britain. The Creel Commission provided themes for speeches by "four-minute men" at public functions, and also encouraged censorship of the American press. The Commission was so unpopular that after the war, Congress closed it down without providing funding to organize and archive its papers.

The war propaganda campaign of Lippman and Bernays produced within six months such an intense anti-German hysteria as to permanently impress American business (and Adolf Hitler, among others) with the potential of large-scale propaganda to control public opinion. Bernays coined the terms "group mind" and "engineering consent", important concepts in practical propaganda work.

The current public relations industry is a direct outgrowth of Lippman's and Bernays' work and is still used extensively by the United States government. For the first half of the 20th century Bernays and Lippman themselves ran a very successful public relations firm.

Expanding dimensions of state propaganda, Joseph Stalin's regime built the largest airplane of the 1930s, Tupolev ANT-20, exclusively for this purpose. Named after the famous Soviet writer Maxim Gorky who recently returned from capitalist fascist Italy, it was equipped with a powerful radio set called "Voice from the sky", printing and leaflet-dropping machinery, radiostations, photographic laboratory, film projector with sound for showing movies in flight, library, etc. The airplane could be disassembled and transported by railroad if needed. The giant aircraft set a number of world records.

World War II saw continued use of propaganda as a weapon of war, both by Hitler's propagandist Joseph Goebbels and the British Political Warfare Executive, as well as the United States Office of War Information.

In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely distributed a video game known as America's Army. The stated intention of the game is to encourage players to become interested in joining the U.S. Army. According to a poll by I for I Research, 30% of young people who had a positive view of the military said that they had developed that view by playing the game.

[Επεξεργασία] Τεχνικές παραγωγής προπαγάνδας

A number of techniques which are based on social psychological research are used to generate propaganda. Many of these same techniques can be found under logical fallacies, since propagandists use arguments that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid.

Some time has been spent analyzing the means by which propaganda messages are transmitted. That work is important but it is clear that information dissemination strategies only become propaganda strategies when coupled with propagandistic messages. Identifying these messages is a necessary prerequisite to study the methods by which those messages are spread. That is why it is essential to have some knowledge of the following techniques for generating propaganda:

• Appeal to fear: Appeals to fear seek to build support by instilling fear in the general population, for example, Joseph Goebbels exploited Theodore Kaufman's Germany Must Perish! to claim that the Allies sought the extermination of the German people.
• Appeal to authority: Appeals to authority cite prominent figures to support a position idea, argument, or course of action.
• Argumentum ad nauseam: Uses tireless repetition. An idea once repeated enough times, is taken as the truth. Works best when media sources are limited and controlled by the propagator.
• Bandwagon: Bandwagon and inevitable-victory appeals attempt to persuade the target audience to take the course of action that "everyone else is taking."
  • Join the crowd: This technique reinforces people's natural desire to be on the winning side. This technique is used to convince the audience that a program is an expression of an irresistible mass movement and that it is in their best interest to join.
  • Inevitable victory: invites those not already on the bandwagon to join those already on the road to certain victory. Those already or at least partially on the bandwagon are reassured that staying aboard is their best course of action.
• Direct order: This technique hopes to simplify the decision making process. The propagandist uses images and words to tell the audience exactly what actions to take, eliminating any other possible choices. Authority figures can be used to give the order, overlapping it with the Appeal to authority technique, but not necessarily. The Uncle Sam "I want you" image is an example of this technique.
• Obtain disapproval: This technique is used to persuade a target audience to disapprove of an action or idea by suggesting that the idea is popular with groups hated, feared, or held in contempt by the target audience. Thus if a group which supports a certain policy is led to believe that undesirable, subversive, or contemptible people support the same policy, then the members of the group may decide to change their original position.
• Glittering generalities: Glittering generalities are intense, emotionally appealing words so closely associated with highly valued concepts and beliefs that they carry conviction without supporting information or reason. They appeal to such emotions as love of country, home; desire for peace, freedom, glory, honor, etc. They ask for approval without examination of the reason. Though the words and phrases are vague and suggest different things to different people their connotation is always favorable: "The concepts and programs of the propagandist are always good, desirable, virtuous." See ""transfer"", "virtue words"".

• Rationalization: Individuals or groups may use favorable generalities to rationalize questionable acts or beliefs. Vague and pleasant phrases are often used to justify such actions or beliefs.
• Intentional vagueness: Generalities are deliberately vague so that the audience may supply its own interpretations. The intention is to move the audience by use of undefined phrases, without analyzing their validity or attempting to determine their reasonableness or application. The intent is to cause people to draw their own interpretations rather than simply being presented with an explicit idea. In trying to "figure out" the propaganda, the audience foregoes judgment of the ideas presented. Their validity, reasonableness and application is not considered.
• Transfer: Also known as association, this is a technique of projecting positive or negative qualities (praise or blame) of a person, entity, object, or value (an individual, group, organization, nation, patriotism, etc.) to another in order to make the second more acceptable or to discredit it. It evokes an emotional response, which stimulates the target to identify with recognized authorities. Often highly visual, this technique often utilizes symbols (for example, the Swastika used in Nazi Germany, originally a symbol for health and prosperity) superimposed over other visual images. An example of common use of this technique in America is for the President to be filmed or photographed in front of the American flag.
• Oversimplification: Favorable generalities are used to provide simple answers to complex social, political, economic, or military problems.
• Common man: The "plain folks" or "common man" approach attempts to convince the audience that the propagandist's positions reflect the common sense of the people. It is designed to win the confidence of the audience by communicating in the common manner and style of the target audience. Propagandists use ordinary language and mannerisms (and clothe their message in face-to-face and audiovisual communications) in attempting to identify their point of view with that of the average person.
• Testimonial: Testimonials are quotations, in or out of context, especially cited to support or reject a given policy, action, program, or personality. The reputation or the role (expert, respected public figure, etc.) of the individual giving the statement is exploited. The testimonial places the official sanction of a respected person or authority on a propaganda message. This is done in an effort to cause the target audience to identify itself with the authority or to accept the authority's opinions and beliefs as its own. See also, damaging quotation

• Stereotyping or Labeling: This technique attempts to arouse prejudices in an audience by labeling the object of the propaganda campaign as something the target audience fears, hates, loathes, or finds undesirable. For instance, reporting on a foreign country or social group may focus on the stereotypical traits that the reader expects, even though they are far from being representative of the whole country or group; such reporting often focuses on the anecdotal.
• Scapegoating: Assigning blame to an individual or group that isn't really responsible, thus alleviating feelings of guilt from responsible parties and/or distracting attention from the need to fix the problem for which blame is being assigned.
• Virtue words: These are words in the value system of the target audience which tend to produce a positive image when attached to a person or issue. Peace, happiness, security, wise leadership, freedom, etc. are virtue words. See ""Transfer"".
• Slogans: A slogan is a brief, striking phrase that may include labeling and stereotyping. If good ideas can be made into slogans, they should be, as good slogans are self-perpetuating.
• Unstated assumption: This technique is used when the propaganda concept the propagandist want to transmit would seem less credible if explicitly stated. It is instead repeatedly assumed or implied. Market populism was mostly spread this way -- few came out and said the market should replace democracy, but many talked about how much more responsive and efficient the market was, how it was overthrowing the old order, etc.

[Επεξεργασία] Τεχνικές διάδοσης προπαγάνδας

Common media for transmitting propaganda messages include news reports, government reports, historical revision, junk science, books, leaflets, movies, radio, television, and posters. In the case of radio and television, propaganda can exist on news, current-affairs or talk-show segments, as advertising or public-service announce "spots" or as long-running advertorials. The magazine Tricontinental, issued by the Cuban OSPAAAL organization, folds propaganda posters and places one in each copy, allowing a very broad distribution of pro-Fidel Castro propaganda.

Ideally a propaganda campaign will follow a strategic transmission pattern to fully indoctrinate a group. This may begin with a simple transmission such as a leaflet dropped from a plane or an advertisement. Generally these messages will contain directions on how to obtain more information, via a web site, hotline, radio program, et cetera. The strategy intends to initiate the individual from information recipient to information seeker through reinforcement, and then from information seeker to ""opinion leader"" through indoctrination. A successful propaganda campaign includes this cyclical ""meme""-reproducing process.

[Επεξεργασία] Συνδέσεις

• Appendix I: PSYOP Techniques (Aug. 31, 1979). Psychological Operations Field Manual No.33-1. Washington, D.C.: Headquarters; Department of the Army. (partial contents here)
• Bytwerk, Randall L. Bending Spines: The Propagandas of Nazi Germany and the German Democratic Republic. East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-870-13710-7
• Edwards, John Carver. Berlin Calling: American Broadcasters in Service to the Third Reich. New York, Prager Publishers, 1991. ISBN 0-275-93705-7.
• Howe, Ellic. The Black Game: British Subversive Operations Against the German During the Second World War. London: Futura, 1982.
• Huxley, Aldous. Brave New World Revisited, New York: Harper, 1958
• Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda: The Formation of Men's Attitudes. Trans. Konrad Kellen & Jean Lerner. New York: Knopf, 1965. New York: Random House/ Vintage 1973
• Linebarger, Paul M. A. (aka Cordwainer Smith). Psychological Warfare. Washington, D.C., Infantry Journal Press, 1948.
• Nelson, Richard Alan. A Chronology and Glossary of Propaganda in the United States. Westport, CT and London: Greenwood Press, 1986. ISBN 0313292612.
• Rouse, Ed. The PsyWarrior. Retrieved from http://www.psywarrior.com.
• Young, Emma (Oct. 10, 2001) Psychological warfare waged in Afghanistan. New Scientist.
• Shirer, William L. Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent, 1934-1941. New York: Albert A. Knopf, 1942.
• SourceWatch, the encyclopedia of propaganda. Available at http://www.sourcewatch.org.