Marc'hadourezh
Diwar Wikipedia, an holloueziadur digor
Ster hollek ar ger marc'hadourezh a zo evit termeniñ un hollad danvezioù unseurt a c'hell bezañ lakaet e gwerzh gant ur marc'hadour. Treuzdouget e vez ar marc'hadourezhioù eus lec'h da lec'h evit bezañ fardet ha treuzfurmet e marc'hadourezhioù all pe evit bezañ gwerzhet evel ma 'z int. An nevid a vez graet eus ar pezh a ra ar varc'hadourien en o holl.
Un adster a zo bet kinniget gant Karl Marx p'en deus prederiet war "ar varc'hadourezh" o reiñ dave d'an holl danvezioù eskemmet ha p'en deus pouezet war perzh pennañ ar armerzh, bezañ un armerzh marc'had, .
Taolenn |
[kemmañ] Marc'hadourezh evit an nevid
[kemmañ] Termenadur
E bed an nevid eo ar varc'hadourezh un danvez produet a c'hell degas un dalvoudegezh armerzhel d'e perc'henner gant ma'z eus gantañ ar gwir d'e werzhañ e-lec'h implijout anezhañ. Dre vras eo ar varc'hadourezh un danvez, fetis pe difetis, a c'hell bezañ gwerzhet pe brenet war ur marc'had digor.
Da skouer e c'heller lakaat war ar marc'had eoul-maen, tredan, sonerezh, kig, kotoñs, metaloù, dafar burev ... hag traoù negativel ivez evel ar gwirioù kas d'an neñv aezhennoù noazus.
Peurliesañ, evit aesaat an traou, e vez gwelet ur varc'hadourezh evel kevatal gant hini ur produer all hag er gevrad gwerzhañ e tamgomz an dra ken e c'hellfer prenañ ar memez marc'hadourezh digant ur marc'hadour all evit fardañ ar memes rekipe hep sellet spis outi.
Bez ez u-eus yalc'hoù bedel evit eskemm ar marc'hadourezhioù (hep ma vezont gwelet gant ar brenerien, na kaset dezho d'an aliesañ).
- Yalc'hoù kenwerzh Chicago
- Euronext.liffe
- Yalc'h ar metaloù Londrez London Metal Exchange
- Yalc'hoù marc'hadourezh New York
Hervez ar vikroarmezherien e c'heller kontañ evel marc'hadourezhioù, al labour hag ar moneiz.
[kemmañ] Ar varc'hadourezh hervez Marx
E teoriennoù armezhel klasel, e levrioù Marx pergen, ur varc'hadourezh a zo un danvez pe ur servij lakaet e gwerzh war ar marc'had. Hervezo eo al labour (an "nerzh labour") oberennoù arz hag al loazoù naturel marc'hadourezhioù ivez. Klask a rae Marx degas un diskoulm evit termeniñ talvoudegezh armerzhel ar marc'hadourezhioù dre ginnig teorienn talvoudegezh al labour. Kalz a brederourien armerzhel (ha ne oant ket marksouriezh|marksourien) o deus klasket seurt diskoulm (Adam Smith, David Ricardo en o zouezh), rak n'eo ket kevatal an dalvoudegezh hag ar priz ken ur c'hlaoustr eo d'armerzherien, koulz ar varksourien hag ar frankizourien evit o termeniñ.
[kemmañ] Perzhioù ar varc'hadourezh
Hervez teorien Varx, talvoudegezh ar varc'hadourezh a zeu eus kementad al labour denel a zo bet ezhomm evit he froduiñ. Eus an dra-se e c'heller kompren e klask an dud espern anezhañ. Met teir dalvoudegezh a zo enklozet en ur varc'hadourezh erfin :
- Talvoudegezh implij
- Talvoudegezh eskemm
- Priz
Un dalvoudegezh implij a ya ganti pa c'hell bastañ ezhomm un den pe c'hoant un den. Dre ret, an dalvoudegezh implij a zo ivez talvoudegezh an implij sokial pa n'eo ket bet produet an danvez evit an produer, met evit tud all.
Un dalvoudegezh eskemm a ya ganti peogwir e c'hell bezañ eskemmet gant marc'hadourezhioù all. Evel-se e bren ar perc'henner nevez ur gounid tennet diouzh labour tud all
Ur priz a ya ganti hag eo an eztaol dre moneiz evit an talvoudegezh eskemm, met posubl eo ober hep moneiz en ur jediñ ur ratio evit an eskemm, da lavaret eo ober trok.
Hervez teorienn talvoudegezh labour, talvoudegezh ar produadur war ur marc'had digor a vez reoliataet gant an amzer labour ret ez-sokial krenn hag e vez lakaet ar prizioù da c'hoari egile gant eben dindan lezenn an dalvoudegezh.
Un troer all a zo goulennet. Trugarezh
[kemmañ] Illustration
To understand the concept of a commodity, consider a chair. It is a commodity if the chair is a tradeable product of human work possessing a social use-value. By contrast, a fallen log of deadwood sat upon in the forest is not a commodity, as it was not produced by human work for the purpose of trade. A chair created by a hobbyist as a gift to someone is not a commodity. Nor is a chair a commodity (as a chair) if its only use would be as scrap firewood (unless one purchases a chair specifically to chop it up for fire wood). A chair that nobody could sit on has no use-value, and cannot be a commodity (unless it has an ornamental value, e.g. in a doll's house).
[kemmañ] Historical origins of commodity trade
Commodity-trade historically begins at the boundaries of separate economic communities based otherwise on a non-commercial form of production. Thus, producers trade in those goods of which they have episodic or permanent surpluses to their own requirements, and they aim to obtain different goods with an equal value in return.
Marx refers to this as "simple exchange" which implies what Frederick Engels calls "simple commodity production". At first, goods may not even be intentionally produced for the explicit purpose of exchanging them, but as a regular market for goods develops and a cash economy grows, this becomes more and more the case, and more and more production becomes integrated in commodity trade.
Even so, in simple commodity production, not all inputs and outputs of the production process are necessarily commodities or priced goods, and it is compatible with a variety of different relations of production ranging from self-employment and family labour to serfdom and slavery. Typically, however, it is the producer himself who trades his surpluses.
However, as the division of labour becomes more complex, a class of merchants emerges which specialises in trading commodities, buying here and selling there, without producing products themselves, and parallel to this, property owners emerge who extend credit and charge rents. This process goes together with the increased use of money, and the aim of merchants, bankers and rentiers becomes to gain income from the trade, by acting as intermediaries between producers and consumers.
Modern Capitalism however is a mode of production based on generalised commodity production (Marx's German term is verallgemeinerte Warenproduktion), a universal market (see also capitalist mode of production). This means that both the inputs and the outputs of most production in society have become priced, tradeable goods (including the means of production and human labour power), and that what and how much is produced is largely determined by the response of producers to the "state of the market". Production is now explicitly engaged in for the purpose of market sales only, which implies both that its whole organisation is reshaped for this aim, and that people can meet their own needs by purchases in the market (rather than producing goods for their own consumption).
[kemmañ] Forms of commodity trade
The 7 basic forms of commodity trade can be summarised as follows:
- M-C (an act of purchase: a sum of money purchases a commodity)
- C-M (an act of sale: a commodity is sold for money)
- M-M' (a sum of money is lent out at interest to obtain more money, or, one currency is traded for another)
- C-C' (countertrade, in which a commodity trades directly for a different commodity, with money possibly being used as an accounting referent, for example, food for oil, or weapons for diamonds)
- C-M-C' (a commodity is sold for money, which buys another, different commodity with an equal or higher value)
- M-C-M' (money is used to buy a commodity which is resold to obtain a larger sum of money)
- M-C...P...-C'-M' (money buys means of production and labour power used in production to create a new commodity, which is sold for more money than the original outlay).
The hyphens ("-") here refer to a transaction applying to an exchange involving goods or money; the dots in the last-mentioned circuit ("...") indicate that a value-forming process ("P") occurs in between purchase of commodities and the sales of different commodities. Thus, while at first merchants are intermediaries between producers and consumers, later capitalist production becomes the intermediary between buyers and sellers of commodities. In that case, the valuation of labour is determined by the value of its products.
The reifying effects of universalised trade in commodities, involving a process Marx calls "commodity fetishism," mean that social relations become expressed as relations between things; for example, price relations. Markets mediate a complex network of interdependencies and supply chains emerging among people who may not even know who produced the goods they buy, or where they were produced.
Since no one agency can control or regulate the myriad of transactions that occur (apart from blocking some trade here, and permitting it there), the whole of production falls under the sway of the law of value, and economics becomes a science aiming to understand market behaviour, i.e. the aggregate effects of a multitude of people interacting in markets. How quantities of use-values are allocated in a market economy depends mainly on their exchange value, and this allocation is mediated by the "cash nexus".
In Marx's analysis of the capitalist mode of production, commodity sales increase the amount of exchange-value in the possession of the owners of capital, i.e., they yield profit and thus augment their capital (capital accumulation).
Capitalists as businesspeople are interested in use-values primarily from the point of view of their money-making potential, i.e. their exchange-value; any useful object may in principle become an object of exchange and profit-making, although that may in practice take quite some doing. In simple terms, the primary concern of businesspeople here is commercial: the money they can obtain from owning or selling the commodity.
But if an increase in capital-value is to be realised, it is essential that sales of commodities occur. Consequently, the accumulation of capital must go together with the expansion of market sales of commodities. In that sense, businesspeople cannot be indifferent to the use-values in which they trade.
[kemmañ] Cost structure of commodities
In considering the unit cost of a capitalistically produced commodity (in contrast to simple commodity production), Marx claims that the value of any such commodity is reducible to three components equal to:
- variable capital used up to produce it, plus
- fixed and circulating constant capital used up per unit, and
- surplus value per unit.
These components reflect respectively labour costs, the cost of materials and operating expenses including depreciation, and generic profit.
In capitalism, Marx argues, commodity values are commercially expressed as the prices of production of commodities (cost-price + average profit). Prices of production are established jointly by average input costs and by the ruling profit margins applying to outputs sold. They reflect the fact that production has become totally integrated into the circuits of commodity trade, in which capital accumulation becomes the dominant motive. But what prices of production simultaneously hide is the social nature of the valorisation process, i.e. how an increase in capital-value occurs through production.
Likewise, in considering the gross output of capitalist production in an economy as a whole, Marx divides its value into these three components. He argues that the total new value added in production, which he calls the value product, consists of the equivalent of variable capital, plus surplus value. Thus, the workers produce by their labor both a new value equal to their own wages, plus an additional new value which is claimed by capitalists by virtue of their ownership and supply of productive capital.
By producing new capital in the form of new commodities, Marx argues the working class continuously reproduces the capitalist relations of production; by their work, workers create a new value distributed as both labour-income and property-income. If, as free workers, they choose to stop working, the system begins to break down; hence, capitalist civilisation strongly emphasizes the work ethic, regardless of religious belief. People must work, because work is the source of new value.
[kemmañ] Daveoù
[kemmañ] Sell ivez
- Kenwerzh
- Perc'hennerezh
- Lezenn an dalvoudegezh
- Talvoudegezh eskemm
- Talvoudegezh impli
- Talvoudegezh labour
