Mallard

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Mallard (disambiguation).

iMallard
and  one female"> and  one female" width="258" height="194" longdesc="../../../d/u/c/Image%7EDucks_Winter.jpg_fe30.html" /> Two Mallard drakes and  one female
Conservation status
Least Concern (LC)
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Aves Order: Anseriformes Family: Anatidae Subfamily: Anatinae Genus: Anas Species: A. platyrhynchos
Binomial name
Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus, 1758
Subspecies
See Mexican Duck, Anas, and  article text

The Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos^[1]), also known as the wild duck in North America, is  a dabbling duck which breeds throughout the temperate and  sub-tropical areas of North America, Europe and  Asia. Probably the best-known of all ducks, it  gave rise to most domestic ducks, apart from the Muscovy Duck.

It is  strongly migratory in the northern parts of its breeding range, and  winters farther south; it  is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies. it  also frequents Central America and  the Caribbean, and  has been introduced into Australia and  New Zealand. it  is now the most common duck in New Zealand.

In captivity, Mallards come in wild-type plumages, white, and  other colours. Most of these colour variants are  rare but increasing in domestic collections.

Mallards are  hunted and  eaten as game. The flesh has a stonger flavour than that of the more  commonly eaten domestic ducks. ^[2]

Contents 1 Description 2 Breeding behaviour 2.1 Hybridization and  systematics 3 Photo gallery 4 References 4.1 Footnotes 5 External links

[edit] Description

The dabbling duck is  56–65 cm length, with an  81–98 cm wingspan, and  weighs 750–1000 g. The breeding male is  unmistakable with a green head, black rear end and  a blue speculum edged with white, prominent in flight or  at rest. Males also possess a yellow bill with a black tip, females dark brown.

The female Mallard is  light brown like most female dabbling ducks. it  can be distinguished from other ducks by the distinctive speculum. In non-breeding (eclipse) plumage, the drake looks more  like the female.

The Mallard is  a rare example of both Allen's Rule and  Bergmann's Rule in birds. Bergmann's Rule, which states that polar forms tend to be larger than related ones from warmer climates, has numerous examples in birds. Allen's Rule says that appendages like ears tend to be smaller in polar forms to minimize heat loss, and  larger in tropical and  desert equivalents to facilitate heat diffusion, and  that the polar taxa are  stockier overall. Examples of this rule in birds are  rare, as they lack external ears. However, the bill of ducks is  very well supplied with blood vessels and  is vulnerable to cold.

The size of the Mallard varies clinally, and  birds from Greenland, although larger than birds further south, have  smaller bills and  are stockier. it  is sometimes separated as subspecies Greenland Mallard (A. p. conboschas).

The Mallard inhabits most wetlands, including parks, small ponds and  rivers, and  usually feeds by dabbling for plant food or  grazing; there are  reports of it  eating frogs.[2] it  usually nests on a river bank, but not always near water. it  is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season and  will form large flocks. They are  exceptionally fast flyers for their size, reaching speeds of 65 km/h (40 mph).

A noisy species, the male has a nasal call, the female the "quack" always associated with ducks. (Rogers 2001)

A 29-year-old Mallard has been recorded.^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Breeding behaviour

See also animal sexuality

Mallards form pairs only until the female lays eggs, at which time she is  left by the male. The clutch is  8–13 eggs, which are  incubated for 27–28 days to hatching with 50–60 days to fledging. The ducklings are  precocial, and  can swim and  feed themselves on insects as soon as they hatch, although they stay near the female for protection. Young ducklings are  not naturally waterproof and  rely on the mother to provide waterproofing. Mallards also have  rates of male-male sexual activity that are  unusually high for birds. In some cases, as many as 19% of pairs in a Mallard population are  male-male homosexual (Bagemihl 1999).

When they pair off with mating partners, often one or  several drakes will end up "left out". This group will sometimes target an  isolated female duck — chasing, pestering and  pecking at her until she weakens (a phenomenon referred to by researchers as rape flight), at which point each male will take turns copulating with the female. Male Mallards will also occasionally chase other males in the same way. (In one documented case, a male Mallard copulated with another male he was chasing after it  had been killed when it  flew into a glass window (Moeliker 2001 ^[3]).

[ and  systematics">edit] Hybridization and  systematics

Mallards frequently interbreed with their closest relatives in the genus Anas, such as the American Black Duck, and  also with species more  distantly related, for example the Northern Pintail, leading to various hybrids that may be fully fertile. This is  quite unusual among different species, and  apparently has its reasons in the fact that the Mallard evolved very rapidly and  not too long ago, during the Late Pleistocene only. The distinct lineages of this radiation are  usually kept separate due to non-overlapping ranges and  behavioral cues, but are  still not fully genetically incompatible. Mallards and  their domesticated conspecifics are, of course, also fully interfertile.

The mallard is  considered an  invasive species in New Zealand. There, and  elsewhere, mallards are  spreading with increasing urbanization and  hybridizing with local relatives. Over time, a continuum of hybrids ranging between almost typical examples of either species will develop; the speciation process beginning to reverse itself. This has created conservation concerns for relatives of the mallard, such as the Hawaiian Duck (Griffin et al. 1989), the New Zealand Grey Duck (Gillespie 1985, Rhymer et al. 1994), the American Black Duck, the Florida Duck (Mazourek & Gray 1994, McCracken et al. 2001), Meller's Duck (Young & Rhymer 1998) and  the Mexican Duck, in the latter case even leading to a dispute whether these birds should be considered a species (and thus entitled to more  conservation research and  funding) or  included in the mallard (AOU 1983).

On the other hand, the Chinese Spotbill is  currently introgressing into the mallard populations of the Primorsky Krai, possibly due to habitat changes from global warming (Kulikova et al. 2004). The Mariana Mallard was a population - in most repects a good species - apparently initially derived from Mallard × Pacific Black Duck hybrids (Yamashina 1948); unfortunately, it  became extinct in the 1980s. In addition, feral domestic ducks interbreeding with mallards have  led to a size increase - especially in drakes - in most mallards in urban areas. Rape flights between normal-sized females and  such stronger males frequently end in the female being drowned by the males' combined weight.

It was generally assumed that as the spectacular nuptial plumage of mallard drakes is  obviously the result of sexual selection - most species in the mallard group being sexually monomorphic -, hybrid matings would preferentially take place between females of monomorphic relatives and  mallard drakes instead of the other way around. But this generalization has proven to be incorrect (Rhymer et al. 1994, Kulikova et al. 2004).

Note that it  is not the hybridization itself that causes most conservation concerns. The Laysan Duck is  an insular relative of the mallard with a very small and  fluctuating population. Mallards sometimes arrive on its island home during migration, and  can be expected to occasionally have  remained and  hybridized with Laysan Ducks as long as these species exist. But these hybrids are  less well adapted to the peculiar ecological conditions of Laysan Island than the local ducks, and  thus have  lower fitness, and  furthermore, there were - apart from a brief time in the early 20th century when the Laysan Duck was almost extinct - always much more  Laysan Ducks than stray mallards. Thus, in this case, the hybrid lineages would rapidly fail.

In the cases mentioned above, however, ecological changes and  hunting have  led to a decline of local species. Thus, the crucial point underlying the problems of mallards "hybridizing away" relatives is  far less  a consequence of mallards spreading, but of local ducks declining; allopatric speciation and  isolating behavior have  produced today's diversity of mallard-like ducks despite the fact that in most if not all of these populations, hybridization must always have  occurred to some extent.

However, it  has still been suggested that the American Black Duck is  declining due to hybridization.

The aforementioned confounds analysis of the evolution considerably. Analyses of good samples of mtDNA sequences give the confusing picture^[4] one expects from a wide-ranging species that has evolved probably not much earlier than the Plio-/Pleistocene boundary, around 2 mya. Mallards appear to be closer to their Indo-Pacific relatives than to their American ones judging from biogeography. Considering mtDNA control region sequence data (Kulikova et al. 2005), they may have  evolved more  probably than not in the general area of Siberia; mallard bones rather abruptly appear in food remains of ancient humans and  other deposits of fossil bones in Europe, without a good candidate for a local predecessor species. The large ice age paleosubspecies which made up at least the European and  W Asian populations during the Pleistocene has been named Anas platyrhynchos palaeoboschas.

As expected, haplotypes typical of American mallard relatives and  Spotbills can be found in Mallards around the Bering Sea (Kulikova et al. 2004, 2005). Interestingly, the Aleutian Islands turned out to hold a population of Mallards that appear to be evolving towards a good subspecies as gene flow with other populations is  very limited (Kulikova et al. 2005). This unexpected result suggests that reevaluation of the Greenland, Iceland, and  NE Canada populations according to molecular and  morphological characters is  warranted.

[edit] Photo gallery

Drake	Drake	Mallards in an  urban environment.	Adult drake in full nuptial plumage
Drake	Female with ducklings	Drake	Female walking on grass

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Anas platyrhynchos

[edit] References

• American Ornithologists' Union (AOU) (1983): Check-list of North American Birds (6th edition). American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, DC.

• Bagemihl, Bruce (1999): Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and  Natural Diversity: 479-481. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312192398

• BirdLife International (2004). Anas platyrhynchos. 2006 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN 2006. Retrieved on 11 May 2006. Database entry includes justification for why this species is  of least concern

• Gillespie, Grant D. (1985): Hybridization, introgression, and  morphometric differentiation between Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos) and  Grey Duck (Anas superciliosa) in Otago, New Zealand. Auk 102(3): 459-469. PDF fulltext

• Griffin, C. R.; Shallenberger, F. J. & Fefer, S. I. (1989): Hawaii's endangered waterbirds: a resource management challenge. In: Sharitz, R. R. & Gibbons, I. W. (eds.): Proceedings of Freshwater Wetlands and  Wildlife Symposium: 155-169. Savannah River Ecology Lab, Aiken, South Carolina.

• Johnson, Kevin P. & Sorenson, Michael D. (1999): Phylogeny and  biogeography of dabbling ducks (genus Anas): a comparison of molecular and  morphological evidence. Auk 116(3): 792–805. PDF fulltext

• Kulikova, Irina V.; Zhuravlev, Yury N. & McCracken, Kevin G. (2004): Asymmetric hybridization and  sex-biased gene flow between Eastern Spot-billed Ducks (Anas zonorhyncha) and  Mallards (A. platyrhynchos) in the Russian Far East. Auk 121(3): 930-949. [English with Russian abstract] DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2004)121[0930:AHASGF]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext

• Kulikova, Irina V.; Drovetski, S. V.; Gibson, D. D.; Harrigan, R. J.; Rohwer, S.; Sorenson, Michael D.; Winker, K.; Zhuravlev, Yury N. & McCracken, Kevin G. (2005): Phylogeography of the Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos): Hybridization, dispersal, and  lineage sorting contribute to complex geographic structure. Auk 122(3): 949-965. [English with Russian abstract] DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0949:POTMAP]2.0.CO;2 PDF fulltext Erratum: Auk 122(4): 1309. DOI: 10.1642/0004-8038(2005)122[0949:POTMAP]2.0.CO;2

• MacLeod, Donald (2005): Necrophilia among ducks ruffles research feathers. Education Guardian (March 8). Retrieved 2006-DEC-09.

• Mazourek, J. C. & Gray, P. N. (1994): The Florida duck or  the mallard? Florida Wildlife 48(3): 29-31. DOC fulltext

• McCracken, Kevin G.; Johnson, William P. & Sheldon, Frederick H. (2001): Molecular population genetics, phylogeography, and  conservation biology of the mottled duck (Anas fulvigula). Conservation Genetics 2(2): 87–102. DOI:10.1023/A:1011858312115 PDF fulltext

• Moeliker, C. W. "Kees" (2001): The first case of homosexual necrophilia in the Mallard Anas platyrhynchos (Aves: Anatidae). Deinsea 8: 243-247. PDF fulltext

• Rhymer, Judith M.; Williams, Murray J. & Braun, Michael J. (1994). Mitochondrial analysis of gene flow between New Zealand Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) and  Grey Ducks (A. superciliosa). Auk 111(4): 970–978. PDF fulltext

• Rogers, D. (2001): Animal Diversity Web: Anas platyrhynchos. Retrieved 2006-DEC-08.

• Yamashina, Y. (1948): Notes on the Marianas mallard. Pacific Science 2: 121-124.

• Young, H. Glyn & Rhymer, Judith M. (1998): Meller's duck: A threatened species receives recognition at last. Biodiversity and  Conservation 7: 1313-1323. DOI:10.1023/A:1008843815676

[edit] Footnotes

1. ^ Etymology: Ancient Greek for "flat-billed duck" [1]
2. ^ "Waitrose.com Food Glossary," Accessed November 8 2006
3. ^ This paper was awarded with an  Ig Nobel Prize in 2003 (MacLeod 2005)
4. ^ See for example Johnson & Sorenson (1999) for a phylogeny suggesting Mallard paraphyly, almost certainly because one of the 2(!) Mallards successfully sampled had an  American Black Duck maternal ancestor.

[edit] External links

• Mallard Facts and  Photos - NatureMapping Program
• RSPB A to Z of UK Birds
• Birds in Backyards
• Birdguides Mallard Page
• Mallard videos on the Internet Bird Collection