China
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- This article es circa li Chinese civilization. por li modern-day state commsolmen referred to as China, see People's república de China. por altri meanings, see China (disambiguation).
China Template:Audio (Template:Zh-tspw) refers to a number de states e cultures that ha existeed e es viewed as having succeeded un another in continental East Asia, dating back at least 3,500 annus. China as it existes today ha been variously described in different points de view as a single civilization e multiple civilizations, as a single state e multiple states, e as a single nation e multiple nationes.
With un de li munde's longest periods de uninterrupted civilization e li munde's longest continuously used written lingue sistema, China's history ha been largely characterized per repeated divisions e reunifications amid alternating periods de peace e war, e violent imperial dynastic change. li land's territorial extent expanded outwards de a core area in li North China Plain, e varied according to su moving fortunes to include multiple regiones de East, Northeast, e Central Asia. por centuries, Imperial China esset anc un de li munde's mult technologically advanced civilizations, e East Asia's dominant cultural influence, con an impact lasting to li present day throughout li region.
By li nineteenth e early twentieth centuries, támen, China's political, economic, e military influence declined relative to growing regional power Japan e li influence de Western powers. Semi-colonialism developed per li late nineteenth century in partes de China, e li land esset invaded per li Empire de Japan during munde War II. li imperial sistema in China ended con li establishment de li república de China (ROC) under Sun Yat-sen in 1912; támen, li next four decades de ROC rule esset marred per warlord control, li Second Sino-Japanese War (WWII), e li Chinese Civil War which pitted Chinese Nationalists against li Communist forces.
After su victory in li Chinese Civil War, li Communist Party de China under Mao Zedong established li People's república de China (PRC) in 1949, forcing li república de China (ROC) to retreat to li island de Taiwan, which it had governed since li end de munde War II. Since then, li ROC ha maintained administrative control plu Taiwan, li Pescadores, several ínsules off li coast de Fujian province, e some ínsules in li sud China Sea.
[modificar] Terminology
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[modificar] "Zhongguo"
China es called li Zhongguo in Mandarin Chinese (also romanized as Jhongguo e Chung-kuo), which es usually translated as "Middle Kingdom", ma could anc be translated as, "Central State" e "Central land". It literally means "middle (or center) land," referring to li supposed position de China at li centregfffass holw de that society's "known munde", surrounded per lesser tributary states.
li term ha ne been used consistently throughout Chinese history, támen, e carries certain cultural e political connotations both positive e negative, some ideological, e early states considered part de Chinese history es ne called "Zhongguo". During li Spring e Autumn Period, it esset used solmen to describe li states politically descended de li Western Zhou Dynasty, in li Yellow River (Huang He) valley, to li exclusion de states such as Chu e Qin. li "Chinese" thus defined lor nation as culturally e politically distinct de - e as li axis mundi de surrounding nationes; a concept that continued well into li Qing Dynasty, although being continually redefined while li central political influence expanded territorially, e su culture assimilated alien influences.
Thus "Zhongguo" quickly came to include areas farther sud, including li Yangtze River e Pearl River sistemas, e per li Tang Dynasty it even included "barbarian" regimes such as li Xianbei e Xiongnu. As li PRC now governs Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, e Tibet, e li ROC now governs Taiwan (also claimed per li PRC), ti regiones es anc sovente included as a part de "Zhongguo", though acceptance e denial de such claims remains politically controversial, especially where Zhongguo means PRC.
During li Han Dynasty e before, Zhongguo had tri distinctive meanings:
- li area around li capital e imperial domain. li Book de Poetry explicitly gives ti definition.
- Territories under li direct authority de central authorities. li Historical Records states: "Eight mountains es famed in li empire. tri es con li Man e Yi barbarians. Five es in Zhongguo."
- li area now called li North China Plain. li Sanguo Zhi records li following monologue: "If we can lead li host de Wu e Yue (the area de sudern Jiangsu e nord Zhejiang) to oppose Zhongguo, then we should break off relations con them soon." In ti sense, li term es synonymous con Hua (?) e Xia (?).
During li period de division pos li fall de li Han Dynasty, li term Zhongguo esset subjected to transformation as a result de li surge de nomadic peoples de li nord frontier. ti esset doubly so pos li loss de li Yellow River valley, li cradle de Chinese civilization, to ti peoples. por example, li Xianbei called lor nord Wei regime Zhongguo, contrasting it con li sudern Dynasties, which they called li Yi (?), meaning "barbarian". li sudern dynasties, por lor part, recently exiled de li north, called li nord Wei Lu (?), meaning "criminal" e "prisoner". In ti way Zhongguo came to represent political legitimacy. It esset used in ti manner de li tenth century onwards per li competing dynasties de Liao, Jin e Song. li term Zhongguo came to be related to geographic, cultural e political identity e less to ethnic origin.
li república de China as it controlled mainland China, e later, li People's república de China, ha used Zhongguo to mean tot li territories e peoples within lor political control (pópul in li república de China now usually use Zhongguo to refer to li PRC e use Taiwan to refer to itself). Thus it es asserted that tot 56 officially recognized ethnic groupes es Zhongguo ren (???), e Zhongguo people. lor disparate histories es collectively li history de Zhongguo.
[modificar] "China"
Anglés e mult altri lingues use formes de li name China (e li prefix Sino-), which es believed to ha derived de li name de li Qin dynasty that first unified li land, even though it es ne completely resolved e li origins es still controversial to an extent [1]. Despite li fact that li Qin dynasty esset curt-lived e esset sovente regarded as overly tyrannical it unified li written lingue in China e gave li supreme ruler de China li title de "Emperor", hence, li subsequent Silk Road traders would identify themselves per that name. Alternate theories on li origin de li word "China" existe.
In any circumstance, li word China passed through mult lingues along li Silk Road before it finally reached Europa e England. li Western "China", transliterated to Shina (??) ha anc been used per Japanese since li nineteenth century, e ha since evolved into a derogatory term in that language.
li term "China" can narrowly mean China proper, or, often, China proper e Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Tibet, e Xinjiang, a combination essentially coterminous con li 20th e 21st century political entity China; li boundaries between ti regiones do ne necessarily follow provincial boundaries. In mult contexts, "China" es commsolmen used to refer to li People's república de China e mainland China, while "Taiwan" es used to refer to li república de China. Informally, in economic e business contexts, "the Greater China region" (?????) refers to Mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, e Taiwan.
Sinologists usually use "Chinese" in a plu restricted sense, plu akin to li classical usage de Zhongguo, e to li meaning de li "Han ethnic group", who make up li bulk de Mainland China.
In mult contexts it may be plu appropriate to speak de "mainland China" (????,zho-ngguó dàlù in Mandarin), especially when contrasting it con other, politically different regiones quam Hong Kong, Macau, e territories administered per li república de China (Taiwan).
[modificar] History
- Main articles: History de China, History de li república de China (1912–1949; 1949–Present on Taiwan), History de People's república de China (1949–Present)
China esset un de li earliest centers de human civilization. Chinese civilization esset anc un de li few to invent writing independently, li others being ancient Mesopotamia (Sumerians), India (Indus Valley Civilization), li Mayans, and, some hold, Ancient Egypt—though it may ha been learned de li Sumerians.
li first dynasty according to Chinese historical sources esset li Xia Dynasty; támen there es no archaeological evidence definitively attesting a Xia Dynasty (although some neolithic sites ha been suggested to be such). li first confirmed dynasty es li Shang, who settled along li Huang He river, dating de li 18th to li 12th centuries BC. li Shang esset in turn invaded per li Zhou (12th to 5th centuries BC), whose centralized authority esset slowly eroded per li ceding de state-like authority to warlords ruling litt states; eventually, in li Spring e Autumn period, mult strong independent states, in continuous war, paid ma nominal deference to li Zhou state as li Imperial centre. They esset tot unified under un emperor in 221 BC per Qin Shi Huang, ushering in li Qin Dynasty, li first unified centralized Chinese state.
After li fall de authoritarian Qin Dynasty in 207 BC came li Han Dynasty which lasted until 220 AD. A period de disunion followed again. In 580, China esset reunited under li Sui. Under li succeeding Tang e Song dynasties, China reached su golden age. por a long period de time, especially between li 7th e 14th centuries, China esset un de li mult advanced civilizations in li munde in technology, literature, e art. li Song Dynasty fell to li invading Mongols in 1279. li Mongols, under Kublai Khan, established li Yuan Dynasty. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew li Mongols in 1368 e founded li Ming Dynasty, which lasted until 1644. pos li Ming dynasty, came li Qing (Manchu) dynasty, which lasted until li overthrow de Puyi in 1911.
Oftentimes regime change esset violent e strongly opposed e li ruler class needed to take special measures to ensure lor rule e li loyalty de li overthrown dynasty. por example, pos li foreign Qing (Manchus) conquered China, because they esset ever suspicious de li Han Chinese, li Qing rulers put into effect measures aimed at preventing li absorption de li Manchus into li dominant Han Chinese population. támen, ti restrictions proved ineffective against li assimilation de Manchus into li Chinese identity e culture.
In li 18th century, China achieved a decisive technological advantage plu li peoples de Central Asia, which it had been at war con por several centuries, while simultaneously falling behind Europa in that respect. ti set li stage por li 19th century, in which China adopted a defensive posture against Europan imperialism while itself engaging in imperialistic expansion into Central Asia. See Imperialism in Asia.
támen li primary cause de li decline de li Chinese empire esset ne Europan e American interference, as li ethnocentric Western historians would lead mult to believe. On li contrary it esset a series de internal upheavals. mult prominent de ti esset li Taiping Civil War which lasted de 1851 to 1862. li civil war esset started per an extremist believer in a school de thought partly influenced per Christianity who believed himself to be li son de God e li younger brother de Jesus. Although li imperial forces esset eventually victorious, li civil war esset un de li bloodiest in human history - costing at least twenty million lives (more than li total number de fatalities in li First munde War). Prior to ti conflict a number de Islamic Rebellions, especially in Central Asia, had occurred. Later, a second major rebellion took place, although ti latter uprising esset considerably litter than li cataclysmic Taiping Civil War. ti second conflict esset li Boxer Rebellion which aimed to repel Westerners. Although secretly supporting li rebels, li Empress, Ci Xi, aided foreign forces in suppressing li uprising.
In 1912, pos a prolonged period de decline, li institution de li Emperor de China disappeared e li república de China esset established. li following tri decades esset a period de disunion — li Warlord Era, li Sino-Japanese War, e li Chinese Civil War. li latter ended in 1949 con li Communist Party de China in control de mainland China. li CPC established a communist state—the People's república de China—that laid claim to be li successor state de li república de China. Meanwhile, li disorganized e potentially corrupt ROC government de li Kuomintang fled to Taiwan, where it continued to be recognized as li legitimate government de tot China per li Western bloc e li United nationes until li 1970s, when mult nationes e li UN switched recognition to li PRC.
li United Kingdom e Portugal transferred lor colonies de Hong Kong e Macau on li sudern Chinese coast to li PRC in 1997 e 1999, respectively. China used in a modern context sovente refers to just li territory de li PRC, e to "Mainland China" (the territory de li PRC excluding Hong Kong e Macau).
li PRC does ne recognize li ROC, as it claims to ha succeeded li ROC as li legitimate governing authority de tot de China including Taiwan. On li altri hand, li ROC—while never formally renouncing su earlier claims e changing official maps that show su territory as including both li modern-day PRC, Mongolia e Tibet—has moved away de ti former identity representing su rule plu tot de China, e increasingly identifies itself as Taiwan. li PRC ha historically resisted li ROC's identification de itself as Taiwan, especially in light de li movement supported per residents de Taiwan e others who advocate Taiwan's identity as an independent political entity. Significant disputes persist as to li nature e extent de China, possible Chinese reunification e li political status de Taiwan.
See also:
- Timeline de Chinese history
- Dynasties in Chinese history
- History de Hong Kong
- History de Macau
- History de Taiwan
[modificar] Political history
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Before unification per li Qin Dynasty in 221 BC, "China" did ne existe as a coherent entity. li Chinese civilization consisted de a patchwork de several states, each ruled per a king (?), duke (?), marquess (?), e earl (?). Although there esset a central king who held nominal power, e powerful hegemons sometimes held considerable influence, each state esset ruled as an independent political entity. ti es anc li time de li beginnings de Confucian philosophy e that de mult altri philosophies that grandmen influenced Chinese philosophy-political thought.
This ended con li Qin Dynasty unification, during which li office de li emperor esset set up, e a sistema de bureaucratic administration established. pos li Qin, China experienced circa 13 plu dynasties, mult de which continued li extensive sistema de kingdoms, dukedoms, earldoms, e marquisates. li territory varied con several expansions e contractions depending on li strength de each emperor e dynasty. támen li emperor had ultimate, supreme, e unquestionable authority as li political e religious leader de China. li emperor anc consulted civil e martial ministers, especially li prime minister. Political power sometimes fell into li hands de powerful officials, eunuchs, e imperial relatives, sovente at li expense de a child heriditary emperor. ti happened especially since li emperor sovente esset mult layers de power removed de li outside munde, making him susceptible to manipulation.
Political relations con dependencies (tributary kingdoms) esset maintained per international marriages, military aids, treaties, e gifts. (see section "Geography, Political" below por examples),
Luoyang, Chang'an (today's Xi'an), Nanjing, e Beijing es li four cities mult commsolmen designated as capitals de China plu li course de history. Chinese esset li official language, though periods de Mongol e Manchu conquest saw li arrival de Mongol e Manchu as alternate official languages.
On January 1, 1912, li república de China (ROC) esset established, signaling li end de li Manchu-dominated Qing Empire. Sun Yat-sen de li Kuomintang (KMT e Nationalist Party), esset proclaimed provisional president de li república. támen, Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who had defected to li revolutionary cause, soon forced Sun to step aside e took li presidency por himself (formally it esset a negotiation where Sun agreed to step aside por what esset then perceived as a strong reformer, Yuan). Before long, Yuan attempted to ha himself proclaimed emperor de a new dynasty; támen, he died soon de natural causes before tot y taking power plu tot de li Chinese empire.
After Yuan's downfall, China esset politically fragmented, con an internationally-recognized, ma virtually powerless, national government seated in Beijing (thus failing to fit li definition de a state). Warlords in various regiones exercised actual control plu lor respective territories.
In li late 1920s, li Kuomintang, under Chiang Kai-shek, esset able to reunify li land under su own control, moving li nation's capital to Nanjing e implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage de political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's program por transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule per li Kuomintang con heavy Leninist influences. Ironically, both li Kuomintang e li CCP ha heavy Leninist influences. In 1947, constitutional rule esset established, ma because de li ongoing Chinese Civil War between li Kuomintang e li Communist Party de China (CPC), mult provisions de li 1947 ROC constitution esset never put into actual practice on li mainland.
By early 1950, li CPC had defeated li Kuomintang on li mainland, e li ROC government retreated to li island de Taiwan. Beginning in li late 1970s, Taiwan began li implementation de tot , multi-party, representative democracy in li territories still under ROC control (i.e., Taiwan Province, Taipei, Kaohsiung e some offshore ínsules de Fujian province). Today, li political scene in li ROC es vibrant, con active participation per tot sectors de society. ma rather than li usual conservative-liberal policy distinctions that es li hallmarks de mult democracies around li munde, li main cleavage in ROC politics es li unification con China in li long-run vs. formal independence issue. támen, Greens es generally plu liberal (i.e. plu environmentally friendly) e Blues es generally regarded as plu conservative.
Meanwhile, Mao Zedong, li leader de li communists, proclaimed li People's república de China (PRC) on October 1, 1949 in Beijing, saying China had stood up. de li beginning, li PRC ha been a dictatorial one-party state under li Communist Party. támen, post-1978 reformes ha led to li relaxation, in varying degrees, de party control plu mult areas de society. Nonetheless, li Communist Party still ha absolute control plu political aspects de society, e it continuously seeks to eradicate threats to su rule. Examples de ti include li jailing de political opponents e journalists, general control de li press, regulation de religions e altri non-party organizations, censorship de li press, literature e film, e suppression de independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, a popular demonstration held in Beijing at Tiananmen Square esset violently put to an end per li Chinese government. [[2]] li attempted eradication de li Falun Gong movement es anc held per su supporters to be motivated per fear de Falun Gong's growing influence. Today, támen, there es much plu freedom in intellectual thought in non-political areas e propaganda, while still continuing, ha lessened.
See also:
- Chinese nationalism
- Propaganda in li People's república de China
- Imperialism in Asia
- Chinese sovereign
- Chinese law
[modificar] Territory
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[modificar] Historical overview
li Zhou Dynasty, which preceded li unification de China per Shi Huangdi, esset originally li region around li Yellow River. Since then, li territory ha expanded outward in tot directions, e esset largest during li Tang, Yuan, e Qing dynasties. li Qing Dynasty included partes de modern Russian Far East e Central Asia (west de Xinjiang).
Along con provincial administrators, some foreign monarchs sent envoys to offer gifts to li Emperor de China e li Emperor returned compliments to them. li Chinese thought that li barbarians attached themselves to li virtue de li Emperor, while li foreign governments sometimes disagreed. Since li end de li 19th century, China ha tried to reinterpret ti relationship as suzerainty e suzerainty-dependency, ma ti no longer ha any real conception in modern international political theories.
li Qing Empire reduced li territorial value de li Great Wall de China as a barrier de China proper pos they merged lor homeland (Manchuria) north de li wall con China proper sud de it. In 1683 pos li surrender de li Kingdom de Tungning established per Koxinga, Taiwan including li Pescadores became a part de li Qing Empire, originally as un prefecture, then du, e later a province. Taiwan esset subsequently ceded to Japan pos li first Sino-Japanese War in 1895. At li end de li second Sino-Japanese War in 1945, Japan relinquished li sovereignty de li island in li San Francisco Peace Treaty, e li república de China took over. Since then, li de jure sovereignty de Taiwan ha been under dispute between li PRC, e li now democratic ROC e Taiwan independence supporters.
See: Taiwan, república de China, Tibet
[modificar] Historical political divisions
Top-level political divisions de China ha altered as li administration changed. Top levels included circuits e provinces. Below that, there ha been prefectures, subprefectures, departments, commanderies, districts, e counties. Recent divisions anc include prefecture-level cities, county-level cities, towns e townships (see below por examples).
Historically, mult Chinese dynasties esset based in li historical heartlands de China, known per li politically-correct term de China proper. Various dynasties anc exhibited expansionism per engaging in incursions into plu peripheral territories quam Inner Mongolia, Manchuria, Xinjiang, e Tibet. li Manchu-established Qing Dynasty e su successors, li república de China e li People's república de China cemented li incorporation de ti territories into China. ti territories es separated per borders that es vague at best, e do ne correspond well to contemporary political divisions. China proper es generally thought to be bounded per li Great Wall e li edge de li Tibetan plateau; Manchuria e Inner Mongolia es found to li north de li Great Wall de China, e li boundary between them can either be taken as li present border between Inner Mongolia e li northeast Chinese provinces, e li plu historic border de li munde War II-era puppet state de Manchukuo; Xinjiang's borders correspond to today's administrative Xinjiang; e historic Tibet es conceived as occupying tot de li Tibetan Plateau. China es anc traditionally thought de as comprising North China (??) e sud China (??), li geographic boundary between which north e sud es largely generalized as Huai River (??) e Qinling Mountains (??).
[modificar] Geography e climate
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Image:Map de China (physical).png
China within East Asia. (PDF)
China es composed de a vast variety de highly different landscapes, con mostly plateaus e mountains in li west, e lower lands on li east. As a result, principal rivers flow de west to east, including li Yangtze (central), li Huang He (central-east), e li Amur (northeast), e sometimes toward li sud (including li Pearl River, Mekong River, e Brahmaputra), con mult Chinese rivers emptying into li Pacific.
Most de China's arable lands lie along li du major rivers, li Yangtze e li Huang He, e each es li centers around which es founded China's major ancient civilizations.
In li east, along li shores de li Yellow Sea e li East China Sea es found extensive e densely populated alluvial plains; li shore de li sud China Sea es plu mountainous e sudern China es dominated per hill land e lower mountain ranges.
To li west, li north ha a great alluvial plain, e li sud ha a vast calcareous tableland traversed per hill ranges de moderate elevation, con li Himalayas, containing li highest point Mount Everest. li northwest anc ha high plateaus among plu arid desert landscapes such as li Takla-Makan e li Gobi Desert, which ha been expanding. Due to a prolonged drought e perhaps poor agricultural practices, dust storms ha become usual in li spring in China. Dust blows tot li way to sudern China, Taiwan, e ha even been measured on li West Coast de li United States.
During mult dynasties, li sudwestern border de China ha been li high mountains e deep valleys de Yunnan, which separate modern China de Burma, Laos e Vietnam.
li climate de China varies grandmen. li nord zone (within which lies Beijing) ha a climate con winters de Arctic severity. li central zone (within which Shanghai es situated) ha a generally temperate climate. li sudern zone (within which lies Guangzhou e altri sudern provinces) ha a generally subtropical climate.
li Palaeozoic formations de China, excepting solmen li upper part de li Carboniferous sistema, es marine, while li Mesozoic e Tertiary deposits es estuarine e freshwater e else de terrestrial origin. groupes de volcanic cones occur in li Great Plain de north China. In li Liaodong e Shandong Peninsulas, there es basaltic plateaux.
[modificar] Demographics
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Over a hundred ethnic groupes ha existeed in China. In terms de numbers, támen, li pre-eminent ethnic group in China es li Han, which es a group so diverse in su culture e lingue that some conceive de it as a larger overarching group bringing together mult litter, distinct ethnic groupes sharing common traits in lingue e culture. Throughout history, mult ethnic groupes ha been assimilated into neighbouring ethnicities e disappeared without a trace. Several previously distinct ethnic groupes ha been Sinicized into li Han, causing su population to increase dramatically; at li same time, mult within li Han identity ha maintained distinct linguistic e cultural traditions, though still identifying as Han. mult times in li past millenia mult foreign groupes ha, in turn, shaped Han lingue e culture, por example li queue es a pig tail hairstyle strictly enforced per li Manchurians on li Han populace. li term Zhonghua Minzu es sometimes used to describe a notion de a "Chinese nationality" transcending ethnic divisions.
li government de li People's república de China now officially recognizes a total de 56 ethnic groupes, de which li largest es li Han Chinese. China's overall population es 1.3 billion. con li global human population currently estimated at circa 6.4 billion, China es home to approximately 20%, e one-fifth de li human species, homo sapiens.
li lack de birth control e promotion de population growth during li rule de Mao Zedong resulted in a demographic explosion, culminating in plu 1.3 billion pópul today. As a response to li problems ti es causing, li government de li PRC ha enacted a birth control policy, commsolmen known as li One-child policy.
li Han speak several mutually unintelligible tongues, classified per modern linguists as being separate languages, ma regarded within li Chinese lingues as "dialects" e "local languages" (topolects) within a single Chinese language (the word por "area languages" ha an implication de dialect rather than a separate language, although although on li basis de use, ti topolects can be found to be separate e mutually unintelligible, e es so classified per mult linguists). li various spoken varieties de Chinese share a common written standard, "Vernacular Chinese" e "baihua", which ha been used since li early 20th Century e es based on Standard Mandarin, li standard spoken language, in grammar e vocabulary. In addition, another, plu ancient written standard, Classical Chinese, esset used por writing Chinese per li literati por thousands de annus before li 20th Century. Classical Chinese es no longer li predominant form de written Chinese, though it continues to be a part de high school curricula e es hence intelligible to some degree to mult Chinese people. altri than Standard Mandarin, spoken variants es usually ne written; li exception es Standard Cantonese, which es sometimes written as Written Cantonese in informal contexts.
[modificar] Culture
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[modificar] Religion
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li major religions de China are:
- Taoism - exact numbers unknown
- Buddhism - exact numbers unknown [circa 8%]
- Christianity - 2 to 4% (this es a Western number, li Chinese official number es much litter than 1%)
- Islam - 1% to 2%
While li People's república de China es officially atheist it does allow religion under strict supervision. Historically, Taoism e Buddhism ha been li dominant religion de Chinese societies, e continues to be so in Chinese societies outside de direct PRC control.
In recent annus, Falun Gong, a spiritual practice drawing upon Buddhism e Taoism, ha attracted great controversy pos li government de li People's república de China labeled it an evil cult e began an attempt to eradicate it. li Falun Gong itself denies that it es a cult e a religion. li Falun Gong says that it ha approximately 70-100 million followers, which es a bit higher than estimates per outside groupes, though exact numbers es unknown. They regularly protest against lor suppression, both domestically e internationally.
See also:
- Confucianism
- Catholicism in China
- Protestantism in China
- Chinese folk religion
- Way de former Heaven Sects
[modificar] Arts, scholarship, e literature
Chinese literature ha a long e prolific continuous history, in part because de li development de printmaking during li Song Dynasty. Before that, manuscripts de li Classics e religious texts (mainly Confucian, Taoist, e Buddhist) esset manually written per ink brush (previously scratching shells) e distributed. Academies de scholars sponsored per li empire esset formed to comment on ti works in both printed e written form. membres de royalty frequently participated in ti discussions. Tens de thousands de ancient written documents es still extant e more, de oracle bones to Qing edicts, es discovered each day, which had been formally ground up por use in Chinese medicine.
For centuries, opportunity por economic e social advancement in China could be provided per high performance on li imperial examinations. ti led to a meritocracy, though in practice ti esset possible solmen among those who esset ne female e too poor to afford test preparation, as doing well still required tutorship. Nevertheless it esset a sistema distinct de li Europan sistema de blood nobility. Imperial examinationes required applicants to write essays e demonstrate mastery de li Confucian classics. Those who passed li highest level de li exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi, a highly esteemed socio-economic position.
Chinese philosophers, writers, e poets ha been, por li mult part, highly respected, e played a key role in preserving e promoting li culture de li empire. Some classical scholars, támen, esset noted por lor daring depictions de lives de li common people, sovente to li displeasure de authorities. (See List de Chinese authors, e List de Chinese lingue poets).
li Chinese ha created numerous musical instruments, such as li zheng, xiao, e erhu, that ha spread throughout East e sudeast Asia, e especially areas under su influence. li sheng es li basis por several Western free-reed instruments.
Chinese characters ha had mult variants e styles throughout li Chinese history, e esset "simplified" in li mid-20th century on mainland China. Calligraphy es a major art-form in China, above that de painting e music. Because de su association con elite scholar-official bosses, it later on became commercialized, where works per famous artists became prized possessions.
li great variation e beauty in li Chinese landscape es sovente li inspiration por great works de Chinese art. See Chinese painting por plu details.
Calligraphy, sushi, e bonsai es tot millennia-old art that later spread to Japan e Korea.
[modificar] Science e technology
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In addition to li cultural innovations mentioned above, technological inventions de China include:
- Compass
- Block Printmaking / Printing Technology
- Paper
- Asian abacus
- Gunpowder
- Crossbow
- Stirrup
- Lacquer
- Rudder
- Seismograph
- Silk
- Porcelain
- Paper money
- li Glider
- li Hot air balloon
- Fireworks
Other areas de technological study:
- li main applications de mathematics in traditional China esset architecture e geography. Pi (π) esset calculated per 5th century mathematician Zu Chongzhi to li seventh digit. li decimal sistema esset used in China as early as 14 Century BC. "Pascal's" Triangle esset discovered per mathematician Liu Ju-Hsieh, long before Pascal esset born.
- Studies in biology ha been extensive, e historic records es consulted even today, such as pharmacopoeias de medicinal plants.
- Traditional medicine e surgery esset highly advanced at various points in history, e in some fields es still seen as innovative. They continue to play a growing role in li international medical community, e ha achieved recognition plu li last few decades in li West as alternative e complementary therapies. An example es acupuncture, although it es somewhat controversial in some quarters. támen, autopsy esset unacceptable, because de li common belief that a corpse should ne be violated. Nevertheless, there esset several doctors who ha increased li understanding de internal anatomy per violating ti autopsy taboo.
- Alchemy esset Taoist chemistry, tre different de modern chemistry.
- Chinese astrology e constellations esset sovente used por divination
- Military innovations include li crossbow e li grid sight, crossbow stirrup, repeating crossbows, poison gas (smoke de burning dried mustard), tear gas made de powdered lime, relief maps por battle planning, manned kites, fire lance, rockets, gunpowder incendiaries, gunpowder grenades, proto-handguns, various gun-related ammunition types e li cannon.
[modificar] Miscellaneous topics
- Confucianism
- list de China-related topics
- Chinese dragons
- Chinese names
- Chinese language
- Chinese nationalism, cultural, historiographical, e political theories, movements e beliefs that assert li idea de a cohesive, unified Chinese pópul e culture under state(s) that es primarily Chinese.
- environment de China
- Water e Wastewater problems in China (http://www.hkc22.com/chinawater.html)
- Nanotechnology e Nano-covergence in China (http://www.hkc22.com/nanochina.html)
- Cormorant fishing
- giant pandas
- imperialism in Asia
- military history de China
- transmarin Chinese
- postage stamps e postal history de China
- price de tea in China
- Shanghai woman
- List de Chinese battles
[modificar] See also
- Buddhism in China
- Islam in China
- Chinese mythology
- Chinese art
- Chinese paper art
- Chinese poetry
- Chinese painting
- Chinese Music
- List de Chinese provinces
- Political divisions de China
- Chinese democracy movement
[modificar] External links
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- Internet Guide por Chinese Studies
- 1911 EB "China"
- China Digital Times
- China History Forums!
- Mondophoto.net - 4200 photos de China
- China taxes, businee e economie.
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