Iranian peoples

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This article is  about the group of peoples who speak Iranian languages. For citizens of the country of Iran, see Demographics of Iran.

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Faravahar is  a prominent guardian spirit in Zoroastrianism and  Iranian culture that is  believed to be a depiction of a Fravashi.

The Iranian peoples are  a collection of ethnic groups defined by their usage of Iranian languages and  their descent from ancient Iranian peoples.^[1][2][3] The Iranian peoples live chiefly in the Middle East, Central Asia, the Caucasus and  South Asia, though speakers of Iranian languages were once found throughout Eurasia, from the Balkans to western China.^[4][5] As Iranian peoples are  not confined to the borders of the current state of Iran, the term Iranic peoples is  sometimes used to avoid confusion with the citizens of Iran.

The series of ethnic groups which comprise the Iranian peoples are  traced to a branch of the ancient Indo-European Aryans known as the Iranians or  Proto-Iranians. Archaeological finds in Russia, Central Asia and  the Middle East have  elucidated some scant information about the way of life of these early peoples. The Iranian peoples have  played an  important role throughout history: the Achaemenid Persians established one of the world's first multi-national states and  the Scythian-Sarmatian nomads dominated the vast expanses of Russia and  western Siberia for centuries with a group of Sarmatian warrior women possibly being the inspiration for the Greek legend of the Amazons.^[6][7] In addition, the various religions of the Iranian peoples, including Zoroastrianism and  Manichaeism, are  believed by some scholars to be important early philosophical influences on Judeo-Christianity.^[8] Early Iranian tribes were the ancestors of many peoples, including the Persians, Kurds, Pashtuns and  many other smaller groups. The southern Iranian peoples survived Alexander the Great's conquests, Muslim Arab attempts at cultural dominance and  devastating assaults by the Mongols, whereas the Iranians of the north were largely assimilated by the Slavs and  other European peoples.

[ and  usage">edit] Etymology and  usage

The term Iranian is  derived from Iran (lit: "Land of the Aryans").^[9][10] The old Proto-Indo-Iranian term Arya, meaning "noble", is  believed to have  been one of a series of self-referential terms used by the Aryans, at least in the areas populated by Aryans who migrated south from Central Asia and/or southern Russia. Their ancient homeland was referred to as Airyanem Vaejah and  varied in its geographic range, sometimes referring to Fars (according to Eratosthenes), the area around Herat (Pliny's view) and  even the entire expanse of the Iranian plateau (Strabo's designation).^[11]

From a linguistic standpoint, the term Iranian peoples is  similar in its usage to the term Germanic peoples, which includes various peoples who happen to speak Germanic languages such as German, English and  Dutch, Norwegian, or  the term Slavic peoples, which includes various speakers of Slavic languages including Russians, Bosniaks and  Serbs.^[12] Thus, along similar lines, the Iranian peoples include not only the Persians and  Tajiks (or eastern Persians) of Iran, Afghanistan and  Tajikistan, but also the Pashtuns, Kurds, Ossetians, Baloch and  other groups. The academic usage of the term Iranian peoples or  Iranic peoples is  thus distinct from the state of Iran and  its various citizens (who are  all Iranian by nationality and  thus popularly referred to as Iranians) in the same way that Germanic peoples is  distinct from Germans. Many citizens of Iran are  not necessarily "Iranian peoples" by virtue of not being speakers of Iranian languages and  may not have  discernible ties to ancient Iranian tribes.

[ and  settlement">edit] History and  settlement

See also: History of Central Asia, History of the Middle East, History of Iran, History of the Kurds, History of Afghanistan, History of Tajikistan, History of Uzbekistan, History of Turkmenistan, History of Pakistan, History of Russia, History of the Balkans, History of India, and History of Azerbaijan

[edit] Roots

The extent of the BMAC (according to the EIEC).

Having descended from the Aryans (Proto-Indo-Iranians), the ancient Iranian peoples separated from the Indo-Aryans, Nuristanis and  Dards in the early 2nd millennium BCE. The Iranian languages form a sub-branch of the Indo-Iranian sub-family, which is  a branch of the family of Indo-European languages.^[13] The Iranian peoples stem from early Proto-Iranians, themselves a branch of the Indo-Iranians, who are  believed to have  originated in either Central Asia or  Afghanistan circa 1800 BCE. The Proto-Iranians are  traced to the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex, a Bronze Age culture of Central Asia. The area between northern Afghanistan and  the Aral Sea is  hypothesized to have  been the region where the Proto-Iranians first emerged, following the separation of Indo-Iranian tribes.^[14]

By the first millennium, Ancient Iranian peoples such as Medes, Persians, Bactrians and  Parthians populated the Iranian plateau, while others such as the Scythians, Sarmatians and  Alans populated the steppes north of the Black Sea. The Saka and  Scythian tribes remained mainly in the south and  spread as far west as the Balkans and  as far east as Xinjiang. Later offshoots, related to the Scythians, included the Sarmatians, who vanished following Slavic and  other invasions into southern Russia, the Ukraine and  the Balkans, presumably due to having been assimilated by other tribes.^[15] A group of Scytho-Sarmatians are  believed to have  been the basis for the legendary Amazons, who are  linked by the Ancient Greeks to the Sauromatae and  who had a matrilineal society with warrior women taking part in war alongside men.^[16][17]

There are  many references to these early Proto-Iranian invaders in the early writings of the ancient Assyrians and  Babylonians. Two of the early offshoots of the Proto-Iranians are  known: Avestan speakers in Afghanistan and  Old Persian speakers in Fars in southeastern Iran. The Avestan texts known as the Gathas are  believed to have  been written by Zoroaster, the founder of Zoroastrianism, while Old Persian appears to have  been established in written form following the adoption of cuneiform from the Sumerians.^[18] The Yaz culture (ca. 1500–1100 BC) may mark the development of Eastern Iranian and  the end of Avestan culture.

The first is  a Bronze Age mentioning by an  Iranian tribe of their "Aryan" lineage is  from an  early inscription known as the Behistun Inscription, recording a proclamation by Darius I of Persia that he was of Aryan ancestry and  that his language was an  Aryan language. The inscription thus provides a link in the Iranian languages to the usage of the term Arya in early Indo-Aryan texts.^[19] These ancient Persians recognized three official languages (Elamite, Babylonian and  Old Persian), which suggests a multicultural society.^[20] it  is not known to what extent other Proto-Iranian tribes referred to themselves as "Aryan", or  if the term has the same meaning in other Old Iranian languages.

[edit] Western Iranians

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Geographical extent of Iranian influence in the 1st century BCE. The Parthian Empire (mostly Western Iranian) is  shown in red, other areas, dominated by Scythia (mostly Eastern Iranian), in orange.

The ancient Persians established themselves in the western portion of the Iranian plateau and  appear to have  interacted considerably with the Elamites and  Babylonians, while the Medes also intermingled with local Semitic peoples to the west. Remnants of the Median language and  Old Persian show their common Proto-Iranian roots, emphasized in Strabo and  Herodotus' analyses of their languages, which they believed to be very similar to the languages spoken by the Bactrians and  Soghdians in the east.^[21][10] Following the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire, the Persian language spread from Fars to various regions of the empire, with the modern dialects of Iran, Afghanistan (also known as Dari) and  Central-Asia (known as Tajiki) descending from Old Persian.

The Avestans' main impact was religious and  liturgical, as the early inhabitants of the Persian Empire appear to have  adopted the religion of Zoroastrianism. The other prominent Iranian peoples, such as the Kurds, are  surmised to stem from Iranic populations that mixed with Caucasian peoples such as the Hurrians, due to some unique qualities found in the Kurdish language that mirror those found in Caucasian languages.^[22] The Baloch relate an  oral tradition regarding their migration from Aleppo, Syria around the year 1000 CE, whereas linguistic evidence links Balochi to Kurdish and  Zazaki.^[23]

[edit] Eastern Iranians

While the Iranian tribes of the south are  better known through their modern counterparts, the tribes which remained largely in the vast Eurasian expanse are  known through the references made to them by the ancient Greeks and  Persians, as well as by archaeological finds. In the 5th century BCE, Herodotus made references to a nomadic people whom he identifies as the Scythians and  describes as having dwelt in what is  today southern Russia.

Scythian Horseman, Pazyryk felt artifact, c. 300 BCE.

It is  believed that these Scythians were conquered by their eastern cousins, the Sarmatians, who are  mentioned by Strabo as the dominant tribe which controlled the southern Russian steppe by the 1st millennium CE. These Sarmatians were also known to the Romans, who conquered the western tribes in the Balkans and  sent Sarmatian conscripts, as part of Roman legions, as far west as Roman Britain.

The Sarmatians of the east became the Alans, who also ventured far and  wide, with a branch ending up in Western Europe and  North Africa, as they accompanied the Germanic Vandals during their migrations. The modern Ossetians are  believed to be the sole direct descendants of the Alans, as other remnants of the Alans disappeared following Germanic, Hunnic and  ultimately Slavic invasions.^[24]

Silver coin of the Indo-Scythian king Azes II (r.c. 35–12 BCE). Buddhist triratna symbol in the left field on the reverse.

Some of the Saka-Scythian tribes in Central Asia would later move further south and  invade the Iranian plateau and  northwestern India (see Indo-Scythians). Another Iranian tribe related to the Saka-Scythians were the Parni in Central Asia, a tribe that pressured and, ultimately, overthrew the rule of the Greek Seleucids in Persia. The Parni replaced the Seleucids as the Parthians, a dynasty that ruled Persia during the early centuries of the 1st millennium CE and  became the main rival of the Roman Empire in the east. it  is surmised that many Iranian tribes, including the Khwarezmians, Massagetae and  Sogdians, were assimilated and/or pushed out of Central Asia by the migrations of Turkic tribes emanating out of Siberia.^[25]

The most dominant surviving Eastern Iranians are  represented by the Pashtuns, whose origins are  generally believed to be in southern Afghanistan, from which they began to spread until they reached as far west as Herat and  as far east as the Indus. The Pashto language shows affinities to Bactrian, as both languages are  believed to be of Middle Iranian origin. The modern Ossetians claim to be the descendants of the Alano-Sarmatians and  their claims are  supported by their Northeast Iranian language, while culturally the Ossetians resemble their Caucasian neighbors, the Kabardians, Circassians and  Georgians.^[24] Various extinct Iranian peoples existed in the eastern Caucasus, including the Azaris, while some Iranian peoples remain in the region, including the Talysh^[26] and  the Tats^[27] (including the Judeo-Tats,^[28] who have  relocated to Israel), found in Azerbaijan and  as far north as the Russian republic of Dagestan.

Another possible issues of Alans were many Turco-speaking peoples of the European steppe (such as Burtas or  Bulgars) and  modern Turkic European Volga Tatars, Chuvashes and  Crimean Tatars.

[edit] Later developments

In ancient times, the majority of southern Iranian peoples became adherents of Zoroastrianism, Buddhism (in parts of Afghanistan and  Central Asia), Judaism and  Nestorian Christianity (largely among the Kurds and  Persians living in Iraq).^[29] The Ossetians would later adopt Christianity as well, with Russian Orthodoxy becoming dominant following their annexation into the Russian Empire, while some converted to Islam due to the influence of the Ottomans.

A statue of Saladin "king of Egypt" at the Damascus citadel.

Starting with the reign of Omar in 634 CE, Muslim Arabs began a conquest of the Iranian plateau. The Arabs conquered the Sassanid Empire of the Persians and  seized much of the Byzantine Empire populated by the Kurds and  others. Ultimately, the various Iranian peoples, including the Persians, Kurds and  Pashtuns, were converted to Islam. The Iranian peoples would later split along sectarian lines as the Persians (and later the Hazara) adopted the Shi'a sect, while the majority of other Iranian peoples remained adherents of Sunni Islam. As ancient tribes and  identities changed, so did the Iranian peoples, many of whom assimilated foreign cultures and  peoples.^[30]

Later, during the 2nd millennium CE, the Iranian peoples would play a prominent role during the age of Islamic expansion and  empire. Saladin, a noted adversary of the Crusaders, was an  ethnic Kurd, while various empires centered in Iran (including the Safavids) re-established a modern dialect of Persian as the official language spoken throughout much of what is  today Iran and  adjacent parts of Central Asia. Iranian influence spread to the Ottoman Empire, where Persian was often spoken at court, as well as in the Mughal Empire, which began in Afghanistan and  shifted to India. All of the major Iranian peoples reasserted their use of Iranian languages following the decline of Arab rule, but would not begin to form modern national identities until the 19th and  early 20th centuries (just as Germans and  Italians were beginning to formulate national identities of their own).

[edit] Demographics

See also: Iranian plateau

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Geographic distribution of the Iranian languages: Persian (green), Pashto (purple) and  Kurdish (turquoise), Baloch (Yellow), as well as smaller communities of other Iranian languages

There are  an estimated 150 million native speakers of Iranian languages. Currently, most of these Iranian peoples live in Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, western-Pakistan, parts of Uzbekistan (especially Samarkand and  Bukhara), the Caucasus (Ossetia and  Azerbaijan) and  the Kurdish areas (referred to as Kurdistan) of Turkey, Iraq, Iran and  Syria. Smaller groups of Iranian peoples can also be found in western China, India and  Israel.

Due to recent migrations, there are  also large communities of speakers of Iranian languages in Europe and  the Americas.

[edit] Diversity

It is  largely through linguistic similarities that the Iranian peoples have  been linked, as many non-Iranian peoples have  adopted Iranian languages and  cultures. However, other common traits have  been identified as well and  a stream of common historical events have  often linked the southern Iranian peoples, including Hellenistic conquests, the various empires based in Persia, Arab Caliphates and  Turkic invasions.

Although most of the Iranian peoples settled in the Iranian plateau region, many expanded into the periphery, ranging from the Caucasus and  Turkey to the Indus and  western China. The Iranian peoples have  often mingled with other populations, with the notable example being the Hazaras, who display a distinct Turkic-Mongol background that contrasts with most other Iranian peoples.^[31] Similarly, the Baloch have  mingled with the Dravidian-speaking Brahui (who have  been strongly modified by Iranian invaders themselves), while the Ossetians have  invariably mixed with Georgians and  other Caucasian peoples. The Pashtuns vary with some having mingled with fellow Iranian groups such as the Tajiks and  Turkic peoples and  those to the east who have  mingled with Dardic and  Nuristani peoples. Moreover, the Kurds are  an eclectic Iranian people who, although displaying some ethnolinguistic ties to other Iranian peoples (in particular their Iranian language and  some cultural traits), are  believed to have  mixed with Caucasian and  Semitic peoples.^[32][22] Modern Persians themselves are  also a heterogeneous group of peoples descended from various ancient Iranian and  indigenous peoples of the Iranian plateau, including the Elamites.^[33] Thus, not unlike the aforementioned example of Germanic peoples including the English, who are  both of Germanic and  Celtic origin, Iranians are  an ethno-linguistic group and  the Iranian peoples display varying degrees of common ancestry and  cultural traits that denote their respective identities.

[ and  assimilation">edit] Culture and  assimilation

See also: Proto-Indo-European society, Indo-Iranian mythology, and Iranian philosophy

Iranian model displaying traditional attire.

Many of the cultural traits of the ancient Iranians were similar to other Proto-Indo-European societies. Like other Indo-Europeans, the early Iranians practiced ritual sacrifice, had a social hierarchy consisting of warriors, clerics and  farmers and  poetic hymns and  sagas to recount their deeds.^[12]

Following the Iranian split from the Indo-Iranians, the Iranians developed an  increasingly distinct culture. it  is surmised that the early Iranians intermarried with and  assimilated local cultures over a long period of time and  thus a caste identity was never needed or  created by the Iranians—in sharp contrast with the Indo-Aryans.^[34]

Various common traits can be discerned among the Iranian peoples. For example, the social event Norouz is  an Iranian festival that is  practiced by nearly all of the Iranian peoples as well as others in the region. Its origins are  traced to Zoroastrianism and  pre-historic times.

Some Iranian peoples exhibit distinct traits that are  unique unto themselves. The Pashtuns adhere to a code of honor and  culture known as Pashtunwali, which has a similar counterpart among the Baloch, called Mayar, that is  more hierarchical.^[35]

[edit] Religion

See also: Historical Shi'a-Sunni relations

 is  a structure of cobalt blue and  turquoise minarets, attracting visitors and  pilgrims from all over the world. Many such Muslim architectural monuments can be attributed to the efforts of the Iranian peoples who are  predominantly followers of Islam today."> is  a structure of cobalt blue and  turquoise minarets, attracting visitors and  pilgrims from all over the world. Many such Muslim architectural monuments can be attributed to the efforts of the Iranian peoples who are  predominantly followers of Islam today." width="230" height="153" longdesc="../../../m/a/z/Image%7EMazar-e_sharif_-_Steve_Evans.jpg_69f0.html" />

Mazari Sharif's Blue Mosque in Afghanistan is  a structure of cobalt blue and  turquoise minarets, attracting visitors and  pilgrims from all over the world. Many such Muslim architectural monuments can be attributed to the efforts of the Iranian peoples who are  predominantly followers of Islam today.

The early Iranian peoples may have  worshipped various deities found throughout other cultures where Indo-European invaders established themselves.^[15] The earliest major religion of the Iranian peoples was Zoroastrianism, which spread to nearly all of the Iranian peoples living in the Iranian plateau.

Modern speakers of Iranian languages mainly follow Islam. Some follow Judaism, Christianity and  the Bahá'í Faith, with an  unknown number showing no religious affiliation. Of the Muslim Iranian peoples, the majority overall are  followers of the Sunni sect of Islam, while most Persians and  Hazaras are  Shi'a. Shi'a Islam and  Sufism in Iran are  both thought to be affected by Persianism. The Christian community is  largely represented by the Russian Orthodox denomination, followed by Ossetians and  Nestorians. Judaism is  followed mainly by Persian Jews, Jews of Afghanistan, Kurdish Jews and  Mountain Jews (of the Caucasus), most of which are  now found in Israel. The historical religion of the Persian Empire was Zoroastrianism and  it has some followers. They are  known as the Parsis in India, or  Zoroastrians in Iran and  Pakistan.

[edit] Iranian influence on Turkic peoples

In matters relating to culture, the various Turkic-speaking minorities of Iran (notably the Azerbaijani people) and  Afghanistan (Uzbeks and  Turkmen) are  often conversant in Iranian languages, in addition to their own Turkic languages and  also have  Iranian culture to the extent that the term Turko-Iranian can be applied.^[36] The usage applies to various circumstances that involve historic interaction, intermarriage, cultural assimilation, bilingualism and  cultural overlap or  commonalities.

Notable among this synthesis of Turko-Iranian culture are  the Azeris, whose culture, religion and  significant periods of history are  linked to the Persians.^[37] Certain theories and  genetic tests^[38] suggest that the Azeris are  descendants of ancient Iranian peoples who lost their Iranian language (see Ancient Azari language) following the Turkic invasions of Azerbaijan in the 11th century CE. In fact, throughout much of the expanse of Central Asia and  the Middle East, Iranian and  Turkic culture has merged in many cases to form various hybrid populations and  cultures, as evident from various ruling dynasties such as the Ghaznavids, Saljuqs and  Mughals.

Iranian cultural influences have  also been significant in Central Asia, where Turkic invaders are  believed to have  largely mixed with native Iranian peoples of which only the Tajik remain, in terms of language usage. The areas of the former Soviet Union adjacent to Iran, Afghanistan and  the Kurdish areas (such as Azerbaijan and  Uzbekistan) have  gone through the prism of decades of Russian and  Soviet rule that has reshaped the Turko-Iranian cultures there to some degree.

[edit] Genetics

Genetic testing of Iranian peoples has revealed many common genes for most of the Iranian peoples, but with numerous exceptions and  regional variations. Genetic studies conducted by Cavalli-Sforza have  revealed that Iranians cluster closely with European groups and  more distantly from Near Eastern groups. Preliminary genetic tests suggest common origins for most of the Iranian peoples:

 and  Geography of Human Genes""> and  Geography of Human Genes"" width="300" height="286" longdesc="../../../c/a/v/Image%7ECavallisforzageneclusters.jpg_c9bb.html" />

Gene clusters from Cavalli-Sforza's "The History and  Geography of Human Genes"

Populations located west of the Indus basin, including those from Iran, Anatolia and  the Caucasus, exhibit a common mtDNA lineage composition, consisting mainly of western Eurasian lineages, with a very limited contribution from South Asia and  eastern Eurasia (fig. 1). Indeed, the different Iranian populations show a striking degree of homogeneity. This is  revealed not only by the nonsignificant FST values and  the PC plot (fig. 6) but also by the SAMOVA results, in which a significant genetic barrier separates populations west of Pakistan from those east and  north of the Indus Valley (results not shown). These observations suggest either a common origin of modern Iranian populations and/or extensive levels of gene flow among them.[39]

Basically, the findings of this study reveal many common genetic markers found among the Iranian peoples from the Tigris to the areas west of the Indus. This correlates with the Iranian languages spoken from the Caucasus to Kurdish areas in the Zagros region and  eastwards to western Pakistan and  Tajikistan and  parts of Uzbekistan in Central Asia. The extensive gene flow is  perhaps an  indication of the spread of Iranian-speaking peoples, whose languages are  now spoken mainly on the Iranian plateau and  adjacent regions. These results relate the relationships of Iranian peoples with each other, while other comparative testing reveals some varied origins for Iranian peoples such as the Kurds, who show genetic ties to the Caucasus at considerably higher levels than any other Iranian peoples except the Ossetians, as well as links to Europe and  Semitic populations that live in close proximity such as the Arab and  Jews.^{[32][40][41][42]}

According to a recent study, the ancestors of the Kurds were from an  old Mediterranean substratum, i.e. Hurrian and  Hittite groups. According to this study the Aryan ancestry of the Kurds and  other Iranian-speaking populations in Anatolia is  not supported by genetic analyses.^[43]

Another recent study of the genetic landscape of Iran was completed by a team of Cambridge geneticists led by Dr. Maziar Ashrafian Bonab (an Iranian Azarbaijani).^[44] Bonab remarked that his group had done extensive DNA testing on different language groups, including Indo-European and  non Indo-European speakers, in Iran.^[38] The study found that the Azerbaijanis of Iran do not have  a similar FSt and  other genetic markers found in Anatolian and  European Turks. However, the genetic Fst and  other genetic traits like MRca and  mtDNA of Iranian Azeris were identical to Persians in Iran.

Ultimately, genetic tests reveal that while the Iranian peoples show numerous common genetic markers overall, there are  also indications of interaction with other groups, regional variations and  cases of genetic drift. In addition, indigenous populations may have  survived the waves of early Aryan invasions as cultural assimilation led to large-scale language replacement (as with some Kurds, Hazaras and  others). Further testing will ultimately be required and  may further elucidate the relationship of the Iranian peoples with each other and  various neighboring populations.

[edit] List of Iranian peoples

Speakers of Iranian languages in modern times include:

Note: Azeris are, due to historical ties with various ancient Iranians^[45] and  their cultural ties with Persians,^[46] sometimes included as an  Iranian people, although the modern Azerbaijani language is  a Turkic language and  the issue remains debated (see Origin of Azerbaijani people and  the Iranian Theory Regarding Azeri's for more  details).^[47] In addition, the origins of South Slavic groups including the Serbs, Croats and  Bulgarians are  sometimes also linked to the Iranian peoples that settled in the Balkans such as the Sarmatians (see also: Theories on the origin of Serbs).

[edit] See also

• Airyanem Vaejah
• Ancient Iranian peoples
• Indo-Iranians
• Greater Iran
• Turko-Iranian
• Iranian Kuwaitis
• Iranian theory regarding the origin of the Azerbaijanis

[edit] Notes

[ and  further reading">edit] References and  further reading

• Banuazizi, Ali and  Weiner, Myron (eds.). The State, Religion, and  Ethnic Politics: Afghanistan, Iran, and  Pakistan (Contemporary Issues in the Middle East), Syracuse University Press (August, 1988). ISBN 0-8156-2448-4.
• Canfield, Robert (ed.). Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge (2002). ISBN 0-521-52291-9.
• Curzon, R. The Iranian Peoples of the Caucasus. ISBN 0-7007-0649-6.
• Derakhshani, Jahanshah. Die Arier in den nahöstlichen Quellen des 3. und 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr., 2nd edition (1999). ISBN 964-90368-6-5.
• Frye, Richard, Greater Iran, Mazda Publishers (2005). ISBN 1-56859-177-2.
• Frye, Richard. Persia, Schocken Books, Zurich (1963). ASIN B0006BYXHY.
• Kennedy, Hugh. The Prophet and  the Age of the Caliphates, Longman, New York, NY (2004). ISBN 0-582-40525-4.
• Khoury, Philip S. & Kostiner, Joseph. Tribes and  State Formation in the Middle East, University of California Press (1991). ISBN 0-520-07080-1.
• Littleton, C. & Malcor, L. From Scythia to Camelot, Garland Publishing, New York, NY, (2000). ISBN 0-8153-3566-0.
• Mallory, J.P. In Search of the Indo-Europeans, Thames and  Hudson, London (1991). ISBN 0-500-27616-1.
• McDowall, David. A Modern History of the Kurds, I.B. Tauris, 3rd Rev edition (2004). ISBN 1-85043-416-6.
• Nassim, J. Afghanistan: A Nation of Minorities, Minority Rights Group, London (1992). ISBN 0-946690-76-6.
• Riasanovsky, Nicholas. A History of Russia, Oxford University Press, Oxford (2004). ISBN 0-19-515394-4.
• Sims-Williams, Nicholas. Indo-Iranian Languages and  Peoples, British Academy (2003). ISBN 0-19-726285-6.

[edit] External links

• H. Bailey, "ARYA: Philology of ethnic epithet of Iranian people", v, pp. 681–683, Online-Edition in Encyclopaedia Iranica
• Shahbazi, A. Shapur. Iraj: the eponymous hero of the Iranians in their traditional history, Online-Edition in Encyclopaedia Iranica
• Ethnologue report for Iranian
• Encyclopedia Britannica: Iranian languages
• The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies: Iranian languages and  lierature
• The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies-Articles on: Anthropology, Genealogy & Folklores of the Iranian peoples
• Where West Meets East: The Complex mtDNA Landscape of the Southwest and  Central Asian Corridor, Am. J. Hum. Genet., 74:827-845, 2004
• "The Origin of The Pre-Imperial Iranian Peoples", by Oric Barirov
• Lost Civilizations: The Scythians