Women in Hinduism

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This article is about the position of women in society as advocated by religious texts in Hinduism. For the actual position of women in India, see Women in India
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The role of women in Hinduism is often disputed, from quite fair to extremely intolerant. Hinduism is based on numerous texts, some of which date back to 2000 BC. They are varied in authority, aunthencity, content and theme, with the most authoritative being the Vedas. The position of women in Hinduism is widely dependent on the specific text and the context. Positive references are made to the ideal woman in texts such as the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, while some texts such as the Manu Smriti advocate a restriction of women's rights.

Contents

[edit] Gender of God

There are a wide variety of viewpoints within the different schools of Hinduism concerning the exact nature and gender (where applicable) of the Supreme person or being. The Shakti traditions for example focus their worship on the goddess Durga as the supreme embodiment of power and feminine strength (a female form of God). Vaishnavism and Shaivism both worship Lakshmi with Vishnu and Parvati with Shiva respectively as beings on an equal level of magnitude (the male and female aspects of God). In some instances such as with Gaudiya Vaishnavism, specific emphasis is placed on the worship of God's female aspect (Radharani) even above that of her paramour Krishna. Thus it could be said that Hinduism considers God to have both male and female aspects, as the original source of both. Other traditions which follow the advaita philosophy consider that ultimately the supreme being is formless without any particular gender, or is transcendental to such considerations.

[edit] Position of the women

In the marriage hymn (RV 10.85.26), the wife is "should address the assembly as a commander."[1]

[edit] Property rights

Arthashastra and Manusamhita are sources about the woman's right to property or ‘Stridhan’, (literally meaning, property of wife). It is of two types: maintenance (in money or land given by the husband), and anything else like ornaments given to her by her family, husband, in-laws and the friends of her husband. Manu further subdivides this into six types - the property given by parents at marriage, given by the parental family when she is going to her husband’s house, given by her husband out of affection (not maintenance which he is bound to give), and property given separately by brother, mother and father [Manu IX 194]. Pre-nuptial contracts are also mentioned where the groom would agree to give a set amount of brideprice to both parents and the bride. Such property belonged to the wife alone and was not to be touched by the groom or her parents except in emergencies (in sickness, in famine, threated by robbers, or for performing holy deeds). At the same time, the Manu Smriti contradicts itself by declaring that a wife has no property and the wealth earned is for the husband [Manu VIII.416].

Daughters and sons equally inherited their mother's property; but some scriptures insist that a mother's property belongs solely to the daughters [Manu IX 131], in order of preference: unmarried daughters, married but poor daughters, married and rich daughters. When a father died, unmarried daughters had to be given a share in their father’s property, equal to one-fourth from every brother's share [since it is assumed that the married daughter had been given her share at marriage] [Manu IX. 118]. If the family has no sons, the (appointed) daughter is the sole inheritor of the property [Manu IX 127].

[edit] Study of Scriptures

Several women sages and seers are mentioned in the Upanishads, the philosophical part of the Vedas, notable among them being Gargi and Maitreyi. The Sanskrit word for female teachers as Acharyā (as opposed to Acharya for teacher and Acharyini for teacher's wife) reveal that women were also given a place as Gurus.

The Harita Dharmasutra (of the Maitrayaniya school of Yayurveda) declares that there are two kind of women: Sadhyavadhu who marry, and the Brahmavaadini who are inclined to religion, they can wear the sacred thread, perform rituals like the agnihotra and read the Vedas. Bhavabhuti's Uttararamacharita 2.3 says that Atreyi went to Southern India where she studied the Vedas and Indian philosophy. Shankara debated with the female philosopher Ubhaya Bharati, and Madhava's Shankaradigvijaya (9.63) mentions that she was well versed in the Vedas. Tirukkoneri Dasyai (15th century) wrote a commentary on Nammalvar's Tiruvaayamoli, with reference to Vedic texts like the Taittiriya Yajurveda.

The Bhagavata Purana states that the Mahabharata was written specifically for women and also men who were not in the priestly Brahmin caste :

"Out of compassion, the great sage thought it wise that this would enable men to achieve the ultimate goal of life. Thus he compiled the great historical narration called the Mahabharata for women, laborers and friends of the twice-born." [2]

In several schools for Vedic priests, many graduates are women.[3]

[edit] Education

Katyayana's Varttika 125, 2477 mentions that there were female teachers of grammar. Patanjali wrote in his comments to Ashtadhyayi 3.3.21 and 4.1.14, that women undergo the thread ceremony before beginning their education, and says that women studied grammar.

[edit] Marriage

In a Hindu marriage, both husband and wife are two parts of one, complementing each other and becoming one in their spiritual journey. The most sacred part of the ceremony involves circumbulating the sacred fire in seven steps to a Vedic mantra where the groom addresses his wife thus

The Vedas prescribe, as do most ancient cultures, that a dowry be given by the bride's family to the groom as a token for supporting the female as now the parents will not have to. The Rig Veda states that cows and gifts given by the father of the bride to the daughter accompanied the bride's procession [Rg Ved. X.85].

In the Manu Smriti, on the other hand, 8 types of marriage are specified; two involve bedecking the bride with costly garments and ornaments before giving her away, two involve the groom's family giving a gift to the bride's and the other four do not involve an exchange of gifts.

The Manusmriti enjoins 'Let mutual fidelity continue until death,' this may be considered as the summary of the highest law for husband and wife. [Manu IX 101]

Rigvedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their husband.[4] The wedding hymn in the Rigveda (RV 10.85.37-38) speaks of "husbands" (plural) for a single wife, but this may have a mythological character.[5]

[edit] Divorce

Both Manusamhita and Arthashastra say that, if the husband is impotent, a traitor, evil-liver, has become an ascetic or an outcast or is missing for a prescribed number of years, then the wife can leave him without blame and marry again. Arthashastra also declares that in other circumstances, divorce can take place only by mutual consent. Manu discusses situations where the wife wishes to return to her first husband whether she has simply deserted him or had married another.

[edit] Remarriage

According to all Hindu scriptures, a widow can remarry. The very term 'punurbhu' is defined as a woman, virgin or not-a-virgin, who has married again. There are several texts that lay down her property rights in various such situations and the rights of her children from both her previous and later marriages.

[edit] Sati

Main article: Sati (practice)

Sati (as verb) is an act of immolation of a woman on her husband's funeral pyre. Sati (as noun) one who immolated either self-willingly or by societal inducement and compulsion.

(Sati was practiced by the Scythians and also the ancient peoples of Scythia, Egypt, Scandinavia and China)[citation needed]. Sati was performed ideally as an act of immortal love and was believed to purged the couple of all accumulated sin.

Though no scripture mandates it, the Puranas, part of the Hindu Smriti, mention sati as highly meritorious in several instances. A few instances of sati are recorded in the Hindu epics, which are otherwise replete with influential widows. Some examples from the Mahabharata include:

  • several of Vasudeva's wives (Rohini, Devaki, Bhadraa and Madira) [M.Bh. Mausalaparvan 7.18].
  • Madri, second wife of Pandu, who held herself responsible for his death, performed sati. His first wife Kunti did not commit sati. [M.Bh. Adiparvan 95.65]

In reference to India, the act of Satiism began around the inception of the Moghul Empire in 13th century. From 13th century onward, because of the death of her husband, Hindu women (who avowed to remain true to their husbands as part of the sacred ritual of marriage) became targets of Muslim raiders and early conquerors of India. Since such women were vulnerable to molestation, rape and other atrocities, it became a societal means to deprive the conqueros of rape and pillage of the Hindu women. One account from the conquest of a Rajput town by Muslim invaders relates that the high-caste women burned themselves to death to preserve their honor and avoid abuse[6]. That saw a significant increase in Satiism (especially among high-caste women) from mid-13th century until early-20th century, when the British Viceroy abolished the act of Satiism by the Order of The Empress Victoria. However, the actual practice of Sati continued by tacit endorsement of the British and was reduced significantly thanks to the social work of the Brahmo Samaj under Raja Ram Mohan Roy.

[edit] References

  1. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.424
  2. ^ Bhag-P 1.4.25
  3. ^ Vasuda Narayanan, Women of Power in the Hindu tradition
  4. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.394
  5. ^ R. C. Majumdar and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.394
  6. ^ [1]
  • [Rg Ved.] : Rig Veda
  • [M.Bh.] : Mahabharata
  • [Br.P.] : Brahma Purana
  • [Manu] : Manu Smriti, Manu, Aryavartta, 4400 B.C-1500 B.C. ? translations exist, see eg. The Laws of Manu W.Doniger and B.K.Smith, Penguin India N.Delhi 1991
  • [Garudapurana] : Garuda Purana
  • [Vishnusmriti] : Vishnu Smrti
  • [Bhag.Pur.] : Bhagavata Purana
  • [Alld. Ch.] : Allied-Chambers Transliterated Hindi-English Dictionary
  • [Vasishta's Padma Purana]
  • [DCGanguly 594]: CHI Vol II #37 p.595 #37 'Some aspects of the position of women in Ancient India'

[edit] See also

[edit] Further reading

  • Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) -- Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
  • Vasuda Narayanan, Women of Power in the Hindu tradition, pp.25-77 in Arvind Sharma and Katherine K Young (eds.), Feminism and World Religions, SUNY Press: Albany (New York)

[edit] External links

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