Religion and sexuality
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
- This article is primarily about religious attitudes to sexual morality. For an overview of cultural attitudes to sex, see Sexual norm.
- More extensive coverage of homosexuality, one of the more controversial areas in this topic, is in the article on Religion and homosexuality.
Sexual morality varies greatly over time and between cultures. A society's standards of sexual morality can be linked to religious beliefs, or social and environmental conditions.
Sexuality and reproduction are fundamental elements in human interaction and society worldwide. Accordingly, most religions have seen a need to address the question of a "proper" role for sexuality in human interaction.
Different religions have different codes of sexual morality, which regulate sexual activity or assign normative values to certain sexually charged actions or thoughts. The views of religions and religious believers range widely, from holding that sex and the flesh are evil to the belief that sex is the highest expression of the divine. Views on sexuality may not even be shared among adherents of a particular sect. Some religions distinguish between sexual activities that are practiced for biological reproduction (sometimes allowed only when in formal marital status and at a certain age), and other activities practiced for sexual pleasure.
Although a popular hypothesis holds that a high degree of societal religiosity correlates with lower rates of non-monogamous sexual activity, a 2005 summary of various studies found that rates of sexually transmitted diseases, abortion, and early adolescent pregnancy are in fact lower in secular societies.[1]
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[edit] Spreading sexual morality to non-adherents
Many cultures attempt to codify their prescriptions concerning individual sexual behaviours. Such codifications are frequently enacted as laws, extending their application beyond the culture to other cultures under the purview of the laws, including dissenters.
Most of the Islamic world has strict rules enforced with sometimes violent punishments to enforce Islamic moral codes, including sexual morality on their citizens, and often attempt to impose it on non-Muslims living within their societies. The same was true of various European Christian regimes at some stages in history, and many contemporary Christians support restrictions on the private expression of sexuality, ranging from relatively uncontroversial prohibitions of prostitution to rather controversial restrictions on oral sex and sodomy. Haredi Jews in Israel use various verbal and print media (newspapers, books, radio shows, websites, etc.) to try to encourage other Jews to follow the Jewish laws of sexuality.
[edit] Abrahamic religions and sexuality
Different-sex sexuality, and specifically procreation, is currently viewed as the ideal by some members of the Abrahamic religions. They sanction monogamous and committed different-sex relationships within marriage. The Old Testament prohibits adultery and different-sex intercourse during menses (Lev.15: 19-24).
[edit] Judaism and sexuality
In A Guide to Jewish Religious Practice, Conservative Rabbi Isaac Klein writes a summation of Jewish views towards sex:
- Modern man is heir to two conflicting traditions neither of which is Jewish: On the one hand, the rebirth of the old paganism which found its extreme expression in the sacred prostitutes of Canaan...and on the other hand, the Christian reaction to the excesses of paganism...sex became identified with original sin, and celibacy was regarded as the ideal form of life. Modern man, while opting for pagan libertinism, also suffers a guilty conscience because of his Christian heritage....Judaism is free of both extremes. It rejects the espousal of uncontrolled sexual expression that paganism preaches, and also Christianity's claim that all sexual activity is inherently evil. Jewish marriage is based on a healthy sexual viewpoint that rejects the two extremist principles, and so are the regulations governing the conjugal relations between husband and wife, taharat hamishpacha, the purity of family life.
The Rabbinical Assembly (Conservative Judaism) has published a pastoral letter on human sexuality, "This Is My Beloved, This Is My Friend: A Rabbinic Letter on Intimate Relations". Topics include sex within marriage; having children; infertility; divorce; adultery; incest; single parenthood; non-marital sex; contraception; homosexuality; and the laws of family purity (taharat hamishpacha).
Perhaps the most misunderstood aspect of Jewish law is the laws related to taharat ha'mishpacha (Hebrew: literally "family purity"). These rules inform us that a woman becomes tame (in Israeli Hebrew, pronounced [tɑ'me]) or niddah when she is menstruating. During this time a couple must refrain from all physical contact, especially sexual relations. After the cessation of her menstrual flow, the women counts seven days before immersing herself in a mikvah, at which time sexual relations between man and wife can resume. The words tahor and tame are often, but erroneously, translated as physically "clean" and "unclean". However, these terms actually describe a state of ritual applicability in regards to fulfilling biblical commandments, such as those associated with the Temple in Jerusalem, the cultic function of Kohanim (priests), and sexual relations within a Jewish marriage. Modern Jewish authors often translate tahor and tame as "ritually pure" and "ritually impure".
Judaism views homosexuality as a grave sin; in recent years some of the more liberal Jewish denominations have begun reinterpreting this. Judaism distinguishes between a homosexual tendency or desire, and actual behavior, only the latter is a sin. This topic is discussed separately in the entry on Jewish views of homosexuality.
For more details, see Rabbi Michael Gold's Does God Belong in the Bedroom? and Rabbi Shmuley Boteach's Kosher Sex.
The Jewish Scriptures prohibits adultery and it also prohibits intercourse during menses (Lev.15: 19-24). It sanctions and promotes sex within marriage as very holy. In fact it is one of the holiest actions a person can do: it has the potential of uniting the spiritual and the physical with the birth of a child, which is something that nothing else can do.
Within the most holy is also found its opposite, which is why sex can also become the lowest and gravest sin a person can do. Sexual sins are one of the three sins that a Jew is required to let himself be killed rather than performing (the others are idol worship, and murder). A couple's sexual pleasure is thought to magnify peace in the world , according to the Zohar.Kabbalist Karen Berg wrote "Am I saying that one should never seek out a one-night stand or experience different types of sexual relationships? You must be the judge of those activities in your life and your tikkun." Judaism teaches that a woman's sex drive is higher than man's.Halakhic authority Moshe Feinstein posited that the sexual needs of modern women are greater than those of their predecessors due to feminism and the sexual revolution.More liberal denominations interpret Halakha as sanctioning pre-marital and extra marital sex since a modern woman is no longer considered to be property.
[edit] Levels of modesty required according to the Torah and Halakha
There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal modesty (tzeniut) according to Orthodox Judaism as derived from various sources in Halakha ("Jewish law"). The following goes from the less severe to the most extreme prohibitions(dubious; discuss) :
- A person should not dwell on lascivious or immoral thoughts.
- Avert one's eyes from staring at members of the opposite sex, particularly at any part of the female anatomy.
- Keep most of your body clothed in respectable clothing.
- Do not wear the clothing of a member of the opposite sex.
- Try not to be naked or unclothed for unnecessary reasons.
- Avoid looking at pictures or scenes that will be sexually arousing.
- Do not look at animals or birds copulating.
- Avoid the company of uncouth individuals and where an atmosphere of levity and depravity prevails.
- Avoid touching a person of the opposite sex (i.e. by observing negiah), especially in a lingering arousing manner (shaking hands very quickly in greeting between sexes is a point of dispute, and depends on customs).
- Do not erotically hug (chibuk) or kiss (nishuk) anyone besides your spouse, and then only in private and when the wife is definitely not a Niddah ("menstruant").
- Masturbation by men (hotza'at zera levatala -- "excreting semen in vain") is not allowed.
- Yichud is the prohibition of secluding oneself with a stranger.
- Do not have sex with anyone who is not your spouse.
- Sex with anyone of the same gender, a relative, or with any type of animal, or with a corpse is forbidden.
[edit] Christianity and sexuality
Despite the wide variations between different Christian denominations, which often specifically include different views of sexuality, it is possible to draw a general picture of the underlying views and Biblical doctrines.
The basis of many Christian views comes from the idea that human sexuality was created by God with the twin purposes of procreation and intimacy—bringing a sexually active couple into a close emotional and spiritual relationship through the close physical relationship. As such, it should be restricted to a monogamous, lifelong relationship between a man and a woman: marriage. Marriage is a commitment to a close and lasting relationship and a basis on which to build a stable family. Because of the emphasis on the procreative function of sex, relationships and specific acts that do not lead to conception are frowned upon or expressly forbidden in some denominations.
Though most Christian denominations now accept contraception within marriage, no Christian denomination permitted it before 1930.
According to most Christian teachings, engaging in homosexual acts is considered sinful. There are, however, individual Christian churches and denominations that are open and affirming of homosexuality. Liberated Christians points out that the ancient teachings against premarital and extramarital sex were misread throughout previous centuries. According to this faith, the New Testament does not prohibit unmarried sexual activities.
[edit] Protestant and Anglican Churches
In many Lutheran, Reformed and United churches of the EKD in Germany and in the Netherlands or Switzerland and in the Lutheran church of Sweden is today a different, liberal view of homosexuality. In these Lutheran, United and Reformed churches (Luther/Calvin) gay priests are permitted in ministry and gay couples get a blessing in their churches. Also in some Methodist churches (England, Canada, Germany...) gay couples get a blessing in a church. Gay priests can marry their partners and can still work as priests.
In the Anglican church is a large discussion over the blessing of gay couples and over tolerance of homosexuality. Anglican (Episcopal) churches in Canada, USA or England permit gay priests in ministry and allow blessings (however Anglican churches in places such as eastern Africa have very conservative views over homosexuality). Gay priests in the Anglican church can marry their partners and can still work as priests.
There are also some evangelical churches (Southern Baptists(USA) for example) which still condemn homosexuality as a sin and blessings are forbidden.
Sex outside of marriage is frowned upon as immoral behavior by fundamentalist and conservative Christian sects, churches and some fringe groups. Reactions to it are mixed, ranging from requiring penance all the way to total ostracism of those who participate in it. In general, marriage is promoted by Christianity, but sex outside of marriage, and sex for pleasure, are accepted by most progressive churches as normal human behavior.
Some translations of the New Testament forbid fornication: "Fornicators, idolaters, adulterers,... will not inherit the kingdom of God". [2]. The original Koine Greek word translated as fornication is porneia. The Greek term is used by some churches to include any form of sexual misconduct, often including masturbation, and there is some debate as to the precise meaning of the word, which in Classical Greek refers specifically to prostitution and is etymologically the same root as in the English "pornography", which literally means "writing of the harlot". Porneia is unlikely to translate as fornication. Many scholars translate it more accurately as immorality.
[edit] Catholic and Orthodox Churches
Because Catholics consider marriage to be the only legitimate, God-sanctioned commitment to an intimate relationship, any sexual activity outside of marriage is discouraged. Extra-marital relationships are also viewed as not providing a secure environment for the raising of children. Before marriage, sexual expression should be limited to showing affection and attraction, with the aim of finding a marriage partner. While married, any sexual relationship with someone other than one's spouse is considered adultery and is forbidden. Masturbation is a contentious issue, but is generally and traditionally considered wrong because of its association with lust.
Within the modern Catholic Church, for example, the disallowance of sexual intercourse between non-married people is generally seen as stemming not from a belief in the inherent sinfulness or negativity of sex itself, but rather from a belief that sexual intercourse is the most sacred act a man and a woman can physically share. Thus, in order to fully experience this sacred bond, it is believed that one's sexuality should be saved for the person with whom one intends to spend the rest of one's mortal life. However centuries of advocating celibacy among Catholic clergymen as a "higher way" of life have led many throughout the church's existence to associate clerical asceticism with a general religious disapproval of sex, though it is of note that Catholic clergymen are also prohibited from marrying.
[edit] Islam and sexuality
Islam forbids celibacy as a form of religious practice, and considers the natural state for humans to be married.
Qur'anic verses made it legal for Muslim men to marry women from other Abrahamic religions (Jews and Christians). Later scholars extended this to include monotheistic religions as well (such as Zoroastrians). Contemporary scholars have upheld this ruling, but many view inter-faith marriages as unwise (as it leads to many problems such as determination of religion of children, etc), albeit legal.
A Muslim woman, on the other hand, is only allowed to marry a Muslim man, under the assumption that to marry a non-Muslim man would mean that the children would grow up as non-Muslims. Under Islamic law (shari'a), a marriage contract between a Muslim woman and a non-Muslim man is considered illegal and void, and hence legally an adulterous affair. The same is true for a marriage contract between a Muslim man and a women from a non-Monotheistic faith (such as Hinduism. This is debatable as Hindu beliefs are actually Monistic; however Buddhism is a nontheistic religion)).
All forms of sexual contact outside of a marriage are considered sinful. In particular, adultery warrants severe punishment. Pre-marital sex is also considered a grave sin, but its punishment is less severe. All shari'a laws regulating sexual conduct apply to both men and women equally, apart from those concerning menstruation (see below).
Most forms of sexual contact within a marriage are allowed. Sex is considered a pleasurable and even spiritual activity, and a duty. At least one hadith explicitly states that for a married couple to have sex is a good deed rewarded by God. Another hadith suggests that a man should not leave the proverbial bed until the woman is satisfied; a reference many say points to orgasm.
Forbidden sexual contact includes genital contact with a woman while she is menstruating. In such case, other sexual contact (such as kissing) is explicitly allowed. Anal sex is also generally forbidden; it is explicitly forbidden within the Sunni sect, but some Shi'a scholars hold that it is allowed if consensual. Other forms of sexual contact, such as oral sex, are not explicitly forbidden, and hence widely held to be permissible.
Marriage to close relatives is not permitted, and therefore such relationship would be considered incestuous. However, cousins (whether paternal or maternal), are not defined to be "close relatives", and hence are allowed to marry, which is not taboo or uncommon in most Muslim countries.
Milk kinship is considered equivalent to blood kinship, that is, if a mother or wet nurse breast feeds both babies, they are considered siblings, and the above rules apply.
Temporary marriage (Mut'a, marriage designated for a preset period of time) is not allowed by the majority Sunni school, but is allowed by Shia.
Polygyny is allowed in Islam (Up to 4 wives at the same time). Concubines, or slaves kept for the purpose of satisfying their masters sexual urges, have also commonly been a part of Muslim culture, famously associated as members of royal courts - "harems" - of Muslim rulers. However, women are strictly forbidden from practicing polyandry.
There are dissenting views on the topic of masturbation. While some scholars consider it unlawful and thus prohibited according to Islamic doctrine, others (such as those of the Hanbali doctrine) believe that those who masturbate out of fear of committing fornication or fear for their bodies have done nothing wrong and are not punished if (and only if) they are unable to marry.
Divorce is allowed in Islam; while in principle both genders have equal rights to initiate them, in practise men overwhelmingly have the upper hand. In most Muslim-majority nations, such biased attitudes usually allow husbands to secure property, child custody, and other rights away from their former wives after the dissolutions of their marriages. Indeed, in many areas, merely a verbal decree ("triple talaq") from a husband is sufficient in the eyes of their societies to sever his ties to one of his wives.
Homosexuality is forbidden in Islam; anal intercourse between a man and another man is explicitly punishable by death in accordance with the hadith: "Whomever you find doing the deed of the People of Lot, then kill both the doer and whomever he is doing it to." The four Caliphs upheld this ruling, as did all of the Prophet's companions. It is a capital crime in Iran, Saudi Arabia, The United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Sudan, and Mauritania. However, in many Muslim societies there have been reports of a wide array of otherwise banned sexual activities in practice. Especially in the Middle East, Central Asia, and South Asia, strict separation between genders may have something to do with widespread homosexual behaviours. In many Pashtun-dominated areas of Afghanistan and Pakistan, for example, relationships between older men and young boys ("halekon") have even been a part of the culture for centuries.
[edit] Hinduism and sexuality
Unlike other religions, views of sexual morality among Hindus differ widely depending on the region and sect. Hindu scriptures themselves are often vague about sexuality. There are temples depicting sexual activity openly (examples include temple complexes at Ajanta and Ellora) and sexual imagery is not altogether sacrilege (for instance, the commonly-known phallic fertility symbol of the Shiva lingam), but strict married life and a good dose of sexual self-restraint (as well as in other aspects of life) are considered essential to a Hindu's well being and dharmic/karmic duties.
Religiously speaking, Hindus begin life at the Brahmacharya or "student" stage, in which they are directed to celibately advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering their dharma (religious duties) and karma (right earthly actions); only once they reach the Grihastya or "householder" stage can they seek kama (physical pleasure) in the strict context of marriage and artha (worldly achievement, material prosperity) through their vocations. To seek physical pleasure before the householder stage would violate the spiritual Hindu's prescribed life path.
In general, however, Hindu society has been influenced by a millennium of Islamic subjugation and centuries of colonial British influence (Victorian at the time) to reflect their quite conservative attitudes in matters pertaining to sex. Many contemporary Hindus (especially in large cities within India and/or second-generation immigrant communities in developed countries) have accepted Western notions like pre-marital sex, "love" marriages (compared to the more traditional arranged marriage), and homo-/bisexuality. Among more traditional elements of Hindu society, though, such concepts are still anathema.
Most culturally-sensitive Hindus adhere to sexual standards akin to Victorian morality, with both pre-marital and extra-marital sex perceived to be gravely immoral and shameful. In the religion's teachings, the prohibition against sex outside of marriage is largely related to the prescribed life stages Hindus are bound to follow if they are to attain moksha (the same as the Buddhist concept of nirvana, or enlightenment of the soul).
As influenced by the British and Islam, Indian law (influencing the highest concentration of Hindus) considers all except heterosexual monogamy to be illegal. Additionally, while there are no restictions on particular kinds of sexual activity, it is considered a highly private affair. Most Hindus are extremely averse to openly address anything related to sexuality, as such discussion or publicly romantic displays are viewed as exceptionally distasteful.
The Kama Sutra (Aphorisms of Love) by Vatsayana, widely believed to be just a manual for sexual congress, offers an insight into sexual mores, ethics and societal rules that were prevalent at that time (ca. 5 CE). Shrungara Ras (Romance, one of the nine rasas or emotions). A drama in Sanskrit, Shakuntalam by Kalidasa, is cited as one of the best examples of Shrungara Ras, talks of the love story of Dushyanta and Shakuntala.
[edit] Buddhism and sexuality
Buddhist teachings are usually disdainful towards sexuality and distrustful of sensual enjoyment and desire. Buddhist monks and nuns of most traditions are expected to refrain from all sexual activity (Japanese Buddhism being a notable exception), and the Buddha is said to have admonished his followers to avoid unchastity “as if it were a pit of burning cinders."[3]
A core teaching of Buddha's foundational first sermon is that "one should not pursue sensual pleasure (kama-sukha), which is low, vulgar, coarse, ignoble and unbeneficial." (Samyutta Nikaya V:420, Sutta Pitaka). This is reinforced in many passages of the Sutta Pitaka, such as the Simile of the Quail (Sutta 66 of the Majjhima Nikaya) where Buddha teaches that sensual pleasures are "filthy, coarse, and ignoble" and "should not be pursued, developed, or cultivated; they should be feared." In the Simile of the Snake (Sutta 22 of the Majjhima Nikaya), Buddha strongly rebukes those who say that sexual practice is not an obstacle to Enlightenment: "Misguided man... I have stated [time and again] how sensual pleasures provide little gratification, much suffering, and much despair, and how great is the danger in them. But you, misguided man [have] injured yourself and stored up much demerit; for this will lead to your harm and suffering for a long time."
In addition, the second of the Four Noble Truths states that the ultimate cause of all suffering is attachment and desire (tanha), and the third states that the way to eliminate suffering is to eliminate attachment and desire. Sexual practices are characterised as both attachment (kama-upadana) and desire (kama-tanha). Sensual desire (kama-cchanda) is also the first of the Five Hindrances, which must be eradicated if one is to progress spiritually. Of the three kinds of cchanda, kama-cchanda is the one that is ethically immoral.ref
Sexual desire is repeatedly described as kilesa, defilement of the mind.
Like other religions, Buddhism takes a strong ethical stand in human affairs and sexual behaviour in particular. The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the five precepts:
1 Refraining from harming living beings/practicing loving kindness
2. Refraining from taking the non-given/practicing generosity
3. Refraining from committing sexual misconduct/practicing contentment
4. Refraining from false speech/practicing truthful communication
5. Refraining from intoxicants/practicing mindfulness.
The precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings i.e. they are training principles. Buddhists are to analyse their actions / thoughts in terms of these precepts, rather than subscribe to a divinely derived list of commandments. The third precept, sexual misconduct, has been interpreted differently by different Buddhist traditions. It is usually understood to include adultery, incest, sex with monks or nuns, but may also be interpreted to include anal sex, oral sex, masturbation and homosexuality.
This means that a householder may indulge in legitimate sex because in such activity there is no guilt and no sense of exploitation of the other party. Sex, according to Buddhism, should be neither unhealthily repressed nor morbidly exaggerated. It should always be under the control of the will, as it can be if it is regarded sanely and placed in its proper perspective.
[edit] Neopaganism and sexuality
Neo-Pagan religions are almost unanimous in their acceptance of same-sex relationships as equal to heterosexual ones.
[edit] See also
- Child sexuality
- Christian views on contraception
- Incest
- List of topics in sexual ethics
- Sex
- Sexual revolution
- Sexual abstinence
- Sexual ethics
- Sexual misconduct
- Sodomy law
- Unification Church views of sexuality
- Victimless crime
[edit] References
- James Boswell, Christianity, Social Tolerance and Homosexuality: Gay People in Western Europe from the Beginning of the Christian Era to the Fourteenth Century, University Of Chicago Press, 1st ed. 1980 ISBN 0-226-06710-6, paperback Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-06711-4
- Mathew Kuefler (editor), The Boswell Thesis : Essays on Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality, University Of Chicago Press, Nov. 2005 ISBN 0-226-45741-9
- Eckhart Tolle, The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment, New World Library, 1st ed. 1999, paperback 2004 ISBN 1-57731-480-8
[edit] Footnotes
- ^ Paul, Gregory S. (2005). Cross-National Correlations of Quantifiable Societal Health with Popular Religiosity and Secularism in the Prosperous Democracies: A First Look. Journal of Religion and Society, volume 7, 2005. Article online.
- ^ A paraphrasing of 1 Corinthians 6:9-10 eg: "The New Testament is characterized by an unconditional repudiation of all extra-marital and unnatural intercourse with animals." Dictionary of the New Testament, Friedrich Hauck and Siegfried Schulz (edited by Kittel and Friedrich) (Vol.6, p.590)
- ^ Hammalawa Saddhatissa, Buddhist Ethics: The Path to Nirvana. (London: Wisdom, 1987), p. 88
[edit] Further reading
- Savramis, Demosthenes. The satanizing of woman: Religion versus sexuality. (New York: Doubleday, 1974)
- Faure, Bernard. The Red Thread: Buddhist Approaches to Sexuality. (Princeton University Press, 1998)
- Sudo, Philip Toshio, Zen Sex: The Way of Making Love. (US: Harper SanFransisco, 2000)
[edit] External links
- Sexuality, the Modern World, and the Catholic Church
- Ethnographical Paedophilia
- Religious Declaration on Sexuality Morality, Justice, and Healing "signed by over 850 religious leaders"; an alternative sexuality - friendly document
- Quakers Integrating Spirituality and Sexuality
- The Spiritual Significance of Sexuality
- Social Determinants of Attitudes Towards Women's Premarital Sexuality Among Female Turkish University Students
- Ecumenical Group "Homosexuals and Church"
- Liberated Christians - A Christian swinging advocacy group
- TheMarriageBed.com - Extensive materials on sexuality from Christian perspective
