Perang Dingin
From Wikipedia
Perang Dingin adalah persaingan terbuka tetapi terhad yang bermula selepas Perang Dunia II antara Amerika Syarikat dan sekutunya dengan Kesatuan Soviet dan sekutunya. Pergeseran ini dikenali sebagai Perang Dingin kerana ia tidak membabitkan pertempuran bersenjata secara langsung antara kuasa besar (perang "panas") secara besar-besaran. Perang Dingin dijalankan melalui tekanan ekonomi, bantuan terpilih, pergerakan diplomatik, propaganda, pembunuhan, operasi ketenteraan tahap rendah dan perang proksi sepenuhnya antara 1947 sehingga kejatuhan Kesatuan Soviet pada 1991. Istilah ini dipopularkan oleh pembiaya dan penasihat politik AS Bernard Baruch pada April 1947 semasa perdebatan mengenai Doktrin Truman.
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[Sunting] Ciri-ciri
Perang Dingin biasanya dianggap berlaku sekitar akhir perikatan antara AS dan Kesatuan Soviet semasa Perang Dunia II sehingga pemecahan Kesatuan Soviet pada tahun 1991. Perang Korean; Krisis Peluru Berpandu Cuba; Perang Vietnam; Perang Afghan; dan rampasan kuasa ketenteraan dibantu CIA terhadap kerajaan dipilih condong kekiri di Iran (1953), Guatemala (1954), dan Chile (1973) merupakan beberapa kejadian di mana ketegangan berkait dengan Perang Dingin mengambil bentuk pertelingkatah senjata. Dalam pertelagahan itu, kuasa besar, terutamanya Amerika Syarikat, beroperasi sebahagian besarnya dengan ,membekalkan senjata dan wang kepada penentang, perkembangan yang mengurangkan kesan langsung kepada populasi kuasa besar.
Pada tahun 1970-an,Perang Dingin telah memberi laluan kepada détente dan perhubungan antarabangsa menjadi semakin rumit dimana dunia tidak boleh dipecahkan kepada dua blok berasingan yang nyata. Akibatnya, negara-negara yang kurang berkuasa mampu menjadi lebih berdikari, dan kuasa besar ini were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to mengawal percambahan senjata nuklear (lihat SALT I, SALT II, Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty). Hubungan AS-Soviet telah kembali renggang pada akhir 1970an dan awal 1980an, tetapi menjadi semakin pulih apabila blok Kesatuan Soviet menunjukkan tanda-tanda kejatuhan pada akhir 1980an. Keruntuhan Kesatuan Soviet pada 1991, bermakna Rusia telah hilang status kuasa besarnya yang dicapai selepas Perang Dunia II.
Strategi konflik antara AS dan Kesatuan Soviet diarena global adalah lebih kepada strategi teknologi (lihat juga deterrence theory). Ia turut melibatkan konflik secara kovert melalui beberapa aktiviti perisikan. Selain daripada pembunuhan ejen-ejen perisikan, perang ini amat tertumpu dengan kebimbangan tentang senjata nuklear. Persoalannya adalah jika salahsatu kuasa besar menghasilkannya secara besar-besaran dan sama ada peperangan boleh dielak hanya dengan memiliki senjata tersebut. Satu lagi manifestasi ialah peperangan propaganda yang rancak antara AS dengan Kesatuan Soviet. Indeed, it was far from certain that a global nuclear war would not result from smaller regional wars, which heightened the level of concern for each conflict. This tension shaped the lives of people around the world almost as much as the actual fighting did.
Kawasan yang paling getir ialah Jerman, terutamanya di bandaraya Berlin. Tidak boleh dinafikan, simbol Perang Dingin yang paling jelas ialah Tembok Berlin. Tembok ini telah memisahkan Berlin Barat (sebahagian bandaraya yang dikawal Jerman Barat dan sekutunya) dari Berlin Timur dan wilayah Jerman Timur, yang mengeliliginya.
[Sunting] perlumbaan senjata
Satu ciri utama Perang Dingin adalah perlumbaan senjata antara Kesatuan Soviet dan NATO, terutamanya Amerika Syarikat tetapi termasuk juga United Kingdom, Perancis, Jerman Barat, dan beberapa kuasa Eropah. Perlumbaan ini berlaku dalam pelbagai bidang teknologi dan ketenteraan, menghasilkan banyak penemuan saintifik. Kemajuan revolutionari terutamanya dalam bidang roket, yang mendorong kepada perlumbaan angkasa. (Kebanyakan atau kesemua roket yang digunakan untuk melancarkan manusia dan satelit dan untuk sampai ke bulan berasal daripada rekabentuk ketenteraan.)
Bidang lain dimana perlumbaan senjata berlaku termasuk:
- jet pejuang,
- pengebom,
- senjata nuklear,
- senjata kimia,
- senjata biologi,
- peluru berpandu permukaan-ke-permukaan,
- meriam anti-pesawat,
- artileri biasa,
- peluru berpandu permukaan-ke-permukaan (termasuk SRBM dan peluru berpandu kruise),
- inter-continental ballistic missiles (as well as IRBMs),
- anti-ballistic missile technology,
- armored vehicles,
- [senapang]],
- rocket propelled grenades and other anti-tank weapons,
- kapal selam dan perperangan anti kapal selam,
- submarine-launched ballistic missiles,
- electronic intelligence,
- signals intelligence,
- arms sales to third world nations to see which superpower's weapons systems were more effective,
- reconnaissance aircraft, and
- satelit pengintip.
Semua bidang ini memerlukan pelaburan tinggi dari segi teknologi dan pembuatan. Dalam kebanyakan bidang, orang Barat telah mencipta senjata yang fungsi dengan efektif, terutamanya disebabkan oleh
All of these fields required massive technological and manufacturing investment. In many fields, the West created weapons with superior effectiveness, mainly due to their lead in digital computers and reluctance to spend enough money to develop systems with brute force superiority. However, the Eastern bloc fielded a larger number of designs in each field and built a larger number of many types of weapons.
One prominent feature of the nuclear arms race, supported in particular by the deployment of nuclear ICBMs, was the concept of deterrence via mutually assured destruction or "MAD". The idea was that the Western bloc would not attack the Eastern bloc or vice versa, because both sides had more than enough nuclear weapons to reduce each other to nothing, and to make the entire planet uninhabitable. Therefore, launching an attack on either party would be suicidal, and so neither would attempt it.
After the breakup of the Soviet Union, many extremely advanced technologies became available on the open market. Fighter jets, anti-aircraft missiles, small arms, and even nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons were rumoured to have changed hands. In some cases, former Soviet-bloc states seized assets such as naval vessels moored in what were now their own ports. In many of these cases, the governments were unable to staff or maintain these assets, and some even auctioned them off to the highest bidder.
[Sunting] The role of intelligence agencies
The armies of the countries involved rarely had much direct participation in the Cold War; the war was primarily fought by intelligence agencies like the CIA (United States), MI6 (United Kingdom), BND (West Germany), Stasi (East Germany) and the KGB (Soviet Union).
The abilities of Echelon, a U.S.-UK intelligence sharing organization that was created during World War II, were used against the USSR, China and their allies. Echelon's heavy U.S.-UK bias led to Canadian (CSIS), New Zealand (NZSIS) and Australian (ASIO) security intelligence agencies participating in the Cold War either as signals intelligence gathering units or as initial processors of raw intelligence.
[Sunting] Real Battles
For forty years the United States and the Soviet Union managed to keep a dangerous secret: they had actually been involved in direct battles. During the Korean War they had fought air battles for two and a half years, in which 1,700 American and Soviet pilots were killed. To both sides it was crucial that this was not made public, since it could very well have led to World War III. The air battles occured mostly in northwest Korea, south of the Jalu river, in an area called "Mig Alley" by the American pilots. The Soviet objective was to take down the American bomber planes and their escorts, primarily F-86 Sabre fighters, in order to protect the ground transports from China to the Chinese troops in Korea. Some estimate that the American airforce lost a quarter of its total number of bombers worldwide. In total, 3,500 American and 1,000 Soviet aircraft were shot down.
Why was this kept a secret? In 1992 the British journalist Jon Halliday interviewed Herbert Brownell, one of president Eisenhower's closest men. According to Brownell, it had to be swept under the rug since it otherwise would have led to demands for an open war with Russia.
[Sunting] Historiography
There have been three distinct periods in the western study of the Cold War. For more than a decade after the end of World War II, few American historians saw any reason to challenge the official U.S. interpretation of the beginning of the Cold War: That the breakdown of relations was a direct result of Stalin's violation of the Yalta accords, the imposition of Soviet-dominated governments on an unwilling Eastern Europe, Soviet intransigence, and aggressive Soviet expansionism.
However, later historians, especially William Appleman Williams in his 1959 The Tragedy of American Diplomacy and Walter LaFeber in his 1967 America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945-1968, articulated an overriding concern: U.S. commitment to maintaining an "open door" for American trade in world markets. Some revisionist historians have argued that U.S. provocations, aggressions, and imperial ambitions pursued by the Truman administration from 1945 to 1953 were at least equally to blame, if not more so. In short, historians have disagreed as to who was responsible for the breakdown of US-Soviet relations and whether the conflict between the two superpowers was inevitable. This revisionist approach reached its height during the Vietnam War when many began to view the American and Soviet empires as morally comparable.
In the later years of the Cold War, there were attempts to forge a post-revisionist synthesis by historians, and since the end of the Cold War, the post-revisionist school has come to dominate. Prominent post-revisionist historians include John Lewis Gaddis and Robert Grogin. Rather than attributing the beginning of the Cold War to either superpower, post-revisionist historians focused on mutual misperception, mutual reactivity, and shared responsibility between the superpowers. Borrowing from the realist school of international relations, the post-revisionists essentially accepted US European policy in Europe, such as US aid to Greece in 1947 and the Marshall Plan.
According to this synthesis, "Communistic activity" was not the root of the difficulties of Western Europe, but rather it was the disruptive effects of the war on the economic, political, and social structure of Europe. In addition, the Marshall Plan rebuilt a functioning Western economic system, thwarting the electoral appeal of the radical left. For Europe, economic aid ended the dollar shortage and stimulated private investment for postwar reconstruction. For the United States, the plan spared it from a crisis of over-production and maintained demand for American exports. The NATO alliance would serve to integrate Western Europe into the system of mutual defense pacts, thus providing safeguards against subversion or neutrality in the bloc. Rejecting the assumption that communism was an international monolith with aggressive designs on the "free world", the post-revisionist school nevertheless accepts US policy in Europe as a necessary reaction to cope with instability in Europe, which threatened to drastically alter the balance of power in a manner favorable to the USSR and devastate the Western economic and political system.
[Sunting] Significant documents
- Franck Report: June 11, 1945. Recommended that the United States either a) keep its atomic discoveries secret for an indefinite time, or b) develop nucleonic armaments at such a pace that no other nation would think of attacking first from fear of overwhelming retaliation. Also proposed that a demonstration of the "new weapon" be made before the eyes of representatives of all of the United Nations, on a barren island or desert.
- Potsdam Declaration: July 26, 1945. A formal statement issued by Harry S. Truman (US), Winston Churchill (United Kingdom), and Chiang Kai-Shek (China) which outlined the terms for a Japanese surrender.
- Baruch Plan: 1946. A proposal by the U.S. to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to a) extend between all nations the exchange of basic scientific information for peaceful ends; b) implement control of atomic energy to the extent necessary to ensure its use only for peaceful purposes; c) eliminate from national armaments atomic weapons and all other major weapons adaptable to mass destruction; and d) establish effective safeguards by way of inspection and other means to protect complying States against the hazards of violations and evasions. When the USSR was the only member State who refused to sign, the US embarked on a massive nuclear weapons testing, development, and deployment program.
- McCloy-Zorin Accords: 1961. Conceived by Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy, the agreement established a foundation or "roadmap" for all future negotiations between the superpowers with regard to general disarmament.
- Partial or Limited Test Ban Treaty (PTBT/LTBT): 1963. Also put forth by Kennedy; banned nuclear tests in the atmosphere, underwater and in space. However, neither France nor China (both Nuclear Weapon States) signed.
- Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT): 1968. Established the U.S., USSR, U.K., France, and China as five "Nuclear-Weapon States." Non-Nuclear Weapon States were prohibited from (among other things) possessing, manufacturing, or acquiring nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices. All 187 signatories were committed to the goal of (eventual) nuclear disarmament.
- Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM): 1972. Entered into between the U.S. and USSR to limit the anti-ballistic missile (ABM) systems used in defending areas against missile-delivered nuclear weapons; ended by the US in 2002.
- Strategic Arms Limitation Treaties I & II (SALT I & II): 1972 / 1979. Limited the growth of US and Soviet missile arsenals.
- Prevention of Nuclear War Agreement: 1973. Committed the U.S. and USSR to consult with one another during conditions of nuclear confrontation .
- Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty (INF): 1987. Eliminated tactical ("battlefield") nuclear devices and GLCMs from Europe.
- Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty I (START I): 1991. This was signed by George H. W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev; reduced the numbers of U.S. and Soviet long-range missiles and nuclear warheads from 10,000 per side to 6,000 per side.
- Mutual Detargeting Treaty (MDT): 1994. U.S. and Russian missiles no longer automatically target the other country; nuclear forces are no longer operated in a manner that presumes that the two nations are adversaries.
- Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) 1996. Prohibits all nuclear test explosions in all environments; was signed by 71 States (US is not signatory).
- Strategic Arms Reductions Treaty II (START II): 2000. Will reduce the numbers of U.S. and Russian long-range missiles and nuclear warheads from 6,000 per side to 3,500-3,000 per side. (START III proposed for 2007).
- Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (Moscow Treaty): 2002. Established bilateral strategic nuclear arms reductions and a new "strategic nuclear framework"; also invited all countries to adopt non-proliferation principles aimed at preventing terrorists, or those that harbored them, from acquiring or developing all types of WMD's and related materials, equipment, and tech.
[Sunting] References
- Templat:Book reference
- Templat:Book reference
[Sunting] Related articles and links
- History of the United States (1945-1964)
- History of the United States (1964-1980)
- History of the United States (1980-1988)
- History of the United States (1988-present)
- History of the Soviet Union (1927-1953)
- History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)
- History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)
- Space Race
- Timeline of Events in the Cold War
- Bipolarity
- Tripolarity
